NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology (NCERT 2026–27)
These Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 solutions cover Methods of Enquiry in Psychology, the chapter that explains how psychologists actually study behaviour and mental processes. You will learn the goals of psychological enquiry (description, prediction, explanation, control and application), the steps of scientific research, the nature of psychological data, and the major methods — observation, experimental, correlational, survey, psychological testing and case study — along with quantitative and qualitative analysis, the limitations of psychological measurement and key ethical issues. Below you get exam-ready answers to all 12 Review Questions reproduced verbatim, plus key terms, extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason and FAQs.
Class: 11Subject: PsychologyChapter: 2Chapter Name: Methods of Enquiry in PsychologyExercise: Review Questions (12)Session: 2026–27
Chapter 2, Methods of Enquiry in Psychology, shows that it is the methodology — formal, systematic observation — that makes psychology a science. Psychological enquiry has five goals: to describe, predict, explain and control behaviour, and to apply the knowledge generated. Scientific research follows four steps: conceptualising a problem (and forming a hypothesis), collecting data, drawing conclusions, and revising the conclusions. Alongside the scientific paradigm, an interpretive paradigm seeks to understand the subjective meanings people give to events. Because human behaviour is complex, no single method fits every question, so psychologists use the observational, experimental, correlational, survey, psychological testing and case study methods. Data are analysed through quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (narrative, content analysis) approaches. The chapter ends with the limitations of psychological measurement — lack of a true zero point, the relative nature of tools and subjective interpretation — and the ethical principles every researcher must respect.
Key Concepts & Terms
Goals of psychological enquiry: description, prediction, explanation and control of behaviour, plus application of the knowledge so generated, in an objective manner.
Hypothesis: a tentative, testable answer to a research problem, formed before collecting data (for example, ‘more time spent viewing violence on TV is linked to greater aggression in children’).
Variable: any stimulus or event that varies (takes different values) and can be measured. An object is not a variable, but its attributes (size, colour) are.
Independent & dependent variable: the independent variable is manipulated or altered by the researcher (the cause); the dependent variable is the behaviour observed for change (the effect).
Experimental & control groups: the experimental group is exposed to the independent-variable manipulation; the control group is treated identically except that the manipulated variable is absent, giving a baseline for comparison.
Correlation coefficient: a number from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0 showing the strength and direction (positive, negative or zero) of the relationship between two variables; it shows association, not cause.
Survey method: studies opinions, attitudes and social facts using interviews, questionnaires, telephone surveys and controlled observation.
Interview vs questionnaire: an interview is an oral, face-to-face (or phone) exchange of questions and answers; a questionnaire is a self-report set of written questions the respondent reads and answers on paper.
Psychological test: a standardised and objective instrument used to assess an individual’s standing relative to others on a mental or behavioural characteristic; good tests have reliability, validity and norms.
Reliability, validity, norms: reliability is consistency of scores over time/items; validity is whether the test measures what it claims to measure; norms are average performance standards for a group.
Case study: an in-depth study of a single case (person, group, institution or event) using multiple methods to gather rich information.
Quantitative vs qualitative methods: quantitative methods convert responses into numbers for statistical analysis; qualitative methods (narrative analysis, content analysis) interpret descriptive, non-numerical data.
Ethical principles: voluntary participation, informed consent, debriefing, sharing of results, and confidentiality of the data source.
Review Questions — Full Solutions
All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Review Questions section. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style.
1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
ANSWERLike all scientific research, psychological enquiry has five goals, which it pursues in an objective manner:1. Description: to describe a behaviour or phenomenon as accurately as possible so that it can be distinguished from other behaviours (for example, carefully recording the study habits of students).2. Prediction: to forecast that, under certain conditions, a particular behaviour is likely to occur within a margin of error — based on relationships observed between behaviours and events (for example, predicting good marks for a child who studies more). Prediction becomes more accurate as more persons are observed.3. Explanation: to identify the causal factors, determinants or antecedent conditions of a behaviour — why it occurs and the conditions under which it does not — so that a cause–effect relationship can be established.4. Control: to make a particular behaviour happen, reduce it or enhance it by changing its antecedent conditions (psychological therapy that changes behaviour is a good example).5. Application: to bring about positive changes in people’s lives and improve the quality of life (for example, using yoga and meditation to reduce stress and increase efficiency), and to develop new theories.
2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
ANSWERScientific enquiry studies an event in an objective, systematic and testable manner. Objectivity means that two or more independent investigators would, to a great extent, reach the same conclusion. The scientific method follows four systematic steps:1. Conceptualising a problem: the researcher selects a topic, reviews past research and personal experience, narrows the focus into specific research questions, and develops a tentative answer called a hypothesis (for example, that viewing TV violence increases aggression in children).2. Collecting data: the researcher prepares a research design (a blueprint) and decides on (a) the participants, (b) the methods of data collection, (c) the tools (interview schedule, questionnaire, observation schedule, etc.), and (d) the procedure, then actually collects the data.3. Drawing conclusions: the data are analysed using graphical representations (pie-charts, bar-diagrams) and statistical methods to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions about what the data mean.4. Revising research conclusions: if the conclusions support the hypothesis, the theory is confirmed; if not, the researcher revises or states an alternative hypothesis and tests it with new data. Thus research is a continuous process.
3. Explain the nature of psychological data.
ANSWERPsychological data (singular = datum) are the varied information psychologists collect about people’s covert or overt behaviour, subjective experiences and mental processes. They form an important input that helps approximate reality and allows ideas to be verified or falsified.Data are context-bound: they are not independent entities but are tied to the physical or social context, the persons involved, the time when the behaviour occurs, the method of collection and the theory guiding it. People behave differently when alone than in a group, or at home than in the office.Data must be interpreted: data do not, by themselves, speak about reality — the researcher must make inferences and attach meaning by placing the data in their proper context.Types of data: psychologists collect demographic information (age, gender, education, income), physical information (ecological and housing conditions), physiological data (height, weight, heart rate, GSR, EEG, reaction time) and psychological information (intelligence, personality, interest, emotions, perception). Such data may be in the form of categories, ranks or scores, or as verbal reports and field notes analysed qualitatively.
4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
ANSWERIn an experiment, the experimental group is the group whose members are exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable. The control group is a comparison group treated in every way like the experimental group except that the manipulated (independent) variable is absent in it. The control group provides a baseline against which the effect of the manipulation is judged; all other conditions are kept constant for both groups, and participants are assigned randomly.Example (Latane and Darley study): participants were sent to three types of rooms to study whether the presence of others affects the reporting of smoke. In one room no one else was present (control group). In the two other rooms two persons were already seated (experimental groups) — in one of these the others were instructed to do nothing. It was found that the control-group participants (alone) reported the emergency in the largest numbers, while those in groups reported it far less — showing the effect of the manipulated variable, the presence of other persons.
5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
ANSWERHypothesis: “A cyclist cycles faster in the presence of other people than when cycling alone.” (In other words, the presence of an audience increases the speed of cycling.)Independent variable: the presence or absence of other people (the audience), because this is the condition the researcher manipulates or varies.Dependent variable: the speed of cycling, because it is the behaviour that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
ANSWERStrengths: a well-designed experiment provides relatively convincing evidence of a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables, because the researcher manipulates the independent variable while keeping all other relevant (extraneous) variables controlled. Through techniques such as elimination, holding variables constant, matching, counter-balancing and random assignment, the experimenter can pin-point the cause and effect with precision and high internal control.Weaknesses: (i) Experiments are often conducted in highly controlled laboratory settings that only simulate real life, so results may not generalise to real situations — i.e. they may have low external validity. (ii) It is not always feasible or ethical to study a problem experimentally (for example, one cannot starve children to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on intelligence). (iii) It is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables that may influence the dependent variable.
7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
ANSWERMethod: this is the naturalistic observation method (a form of the observational method), since behaviour is observed in a natural, real-life setting without any effort to control or manipulate the situation. As the observer watches from a distance without taking part, it is also non-participant observation.Process: scientific observation differs from everyday observation in three ways — (i) Selection: the observer selects a particular behaviour (here, children’s play behaviour) rather than observing everything; (ii) Recording: the selected behaviour is recorded using tallies, detailed notes, shorthand, photographs or video; (iii) Analysis: the recorded behaviour is later analysed to derive meaning. A good observer knows what, whom, when and where to observe, how to record, and how to analyse.Merits: it allows the study of people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation as it actually occurs, giving rich, realistic descriptions.Demerits: it is labour-intensive and time-consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias (“we see things as we are, not as things are”); in non-participant observation, the very presence of an observer may also change the behaviour being observed.
8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?
ANSWERTwo example situations: (i) Conducting an election survey to find out whether people would vote for a particular political party or candidate; (ii) Studying people’s attitude towards a social issue, such as family planning, privatisation of education or what makes people happy. (Surveys are also used to find baseline facts like literacy rate or income levels.)Limitations: (i) People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses, or because they do not want the researcher to know their real beliefs. (ii) People sometimes offer the responses they think the researcher wants to hear rather than their true views, which lowers the accuracy of the results.
9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
ANSWERBoth are techniques of the survey method for collecting information, but they differ as shown below:
Basis
Interview
Questionnaire
Mode
Oral; questions are asked and answered face-to-face (or over the phone).
Written self-report; the respondent reads questions and marks answers on paper.
Flexibility
Flexible; the interviewer can probe, repeat or paraphrase questions and adapt to the respondent.
Fixed; the same predetermined set of questions is given to all, with no probing.
Respondents
Can be used even with children and non-literate persons.
Requires respondents who can read and write.
Time & cost
Time-consuming and may not be cost-effective; gives in-depth information.
Quick, simple, versatile and low-cost; can be given to a group or mailed.
Main drawback
Getting information from one person may take an hour or more.
A mailed questionnaire often gets a poor response rate.
10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
ANSWERA psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on a mental or behavioural characteristic. A standardised test has the following characteristics:Objectivity: if two or more researchers administer the test to the same group, they arrive at more or less the same value for each person. Items are worded to convey the same meaning to all readers, and instructions and scoring procedures are specified in advance.Reliability: the test gives consistent scores when administered to the same persons on two different occasions (test–retest reliability) or across its own items (split-half reliability).Validity: the test actually measures what it claims to measure (for example, a maths-achievement test should measure mathematical achievement, not language proficiency).Norms: a test becomes standardised when norms — the average performance standards of a large group, set by age, sex, residence, etc. — are developed, so that an individual’s score can be compared with others and meaningfully interpreted.
11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
ANSWERPsychological measurement faces three general limitations:1. Lack of true zero point: unlike physical measurement (which starts from zero), psychological measurements have no true zero — no person has zero intelligence. Psychologists fix an arbitrary zero point, so the scores obtained are not absolute but only have relative value.2. Relative nature of psychological tools: tests are built for a particular context, so a test made for urban students (with items about multistoried buildings, metro, etc.) may be unsuitable for tribal children, and a Western test may not apply in the Indian context. Tools must be modified and adapted for the group with which they are used.3. Subjective interpretation of qualitative data: data from qualitative studies are largely subjective, as they involve interpretation by both the researcher and the data provider, and interpretations may vary from one person to another. Hence such field work should ideally be done by more than one investigator who discuss and agree on meaning, and even involve the respondents in the meaning-making.
12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?
ANSWERBecause psychological research deals with human beings, the researcher must follow ethics built on respect for persons’ privacy and choice, beneficence (protecting participants from harm) and justice (sharing benefits with all). The key guidelines are:1. Voluntary participation: participants must be free to decide whether to take part, without coercion or excessive inducement, and free to withdraw at any time without penalty.2. Informed consent: participants must be told what will happen to them during the study before data are collected, so they can make an informed decision — especially where shocks, unpleasant stimuli, private information or deception are involved.3. Debriefing: after the study, participants are given the necessary information to complete their understanding (vital if deception was used), ensuring they leave in the same physical and mental state, free of anxiety or adverse effects.4. Sharing the results of the study: it is the researcher’s moral duty to return to the participants and share the results, which both meets their expectations and may yield new insights.5. Confidentiality of data source: participants have a right to privacy; their information must be kept in strict confidence, used only for research, and protected by not recording identities or by using code numbers.
Extra Practice Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
Q1. What is a hypothesis?
ANSWERA hypothesis is a tentative, testable answer to a research problem that a researcher develops before collecting data, on the basis of past research and observation — for example, that greater viewing of TV violence is linked to greater aggression in children. The study then tries to prove whether it is true or false.
Q2. Distinguish between positive and negative correlation.
ANSWERIn a positive correlation, as one variable increases the other also increases (and vice versa), shown by a number between 0 and +1.0 — e.g. more study time, higher achievement. In a negative correlation, as one variable increases the other decreases, shown by a number between 0 and –1.0 — e.g. more study hours, fewer hours for other activities.
Q3. What is the difference between naturalistic and controlled observation?
ANSWERNaturalistic observation is carried out in natural, real-life settings (homes, schools, hospitals) where the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation. Controlled (laboratory) observation is conducted in a laboratory where certain factors are controlled, as obtained in laboratory experiments.
Q4. Differentiate between a speed test and a power test.
ANSWERA speed test sets a time limit within which the test taker must answer all items, all of equal difficulty, and evaluates the person on the time taken to answer accurately. A power test has no time limit; its items are arranged in increasing order of difficulty and it assesses the underlying ability (power) of the individual. Most tests combine both.
Q5. What is meant by a quasi-experiment?
ANSWERA quasi-experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in a natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control groups. The independent variable is selected rather than varied — for instance, comparing children who lost their parents in an earthquake (experimental group) with those who experienced it but did not lose their parents (control group).
Long Answer Type Questions
Q1. Describe the observational method in psychology, including its types.
ANSWERObservation is a powerful tool for describing behaviour, but scientific observation differs from everyday seeing in that it involves selection of a particular behaviour, careful recording (tallies, notes, photographs, video) and later analysis to derive meaning. Good observation is a skill: the observer must know what and whom to observe, when and where, how to record and how to analyse. Observation can be of two main kinds. Naturalistic vs controlled: naturalistic observation occurs in real-life settings with no attempt to control the situation, while controlled laboratory observation controls certain factors and is obtained in laboratory experiments. Non-participant vs participant: in non-participant observation the observer watches from a distance (the person observed may not know), whereas in participant observation the observer becomes part of the group, building rapport so as to be accepted. The method’s advantage is the study of behaviour as it naturally occurs; its drawbacks are that it is labour-intensive, time-consuming and prone to observer bias, and the observer’s presence may itself change behaviour.
Q2. Explain correlational research and the meaning of the correlation coefficient.
ANSWERCorrelational research is used to determine the relationship between two variables, mainly for prediction. Unlike the experimental method, the researcher does not manipulate any variable but simply finds out whether the two variables are associated or covary. The strength and direction of the relationship is expressed by a number called the correlation coefficient, whose value ranges from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0. A positive correlation means both variables move in the same direction (e.g. more study time, higher achievement; a value such as +.85 shows a strong positive link). A negative correlation means they move in opposite directions (e.g. more study time, fewer hours for other activities), with values between 0 and –1.0. A zero correlation (or a value close to it, like –.02 or +.03) indicates no significant relationship. It is important to remember that correlation shows association, not a cause–effect relationship.
Q3. Compare the quantitative and qualitative methods of analysing data.
ANSWERAfter data are collected, the researcher analyses them to draw conclusions, using two complementary approaches. The quantitative method deals with data from psychological tests, questionnaires and structured interviews, which contain close-ended, scaled responses. The researcher assigns numbers to answers (e.g. 1 for right, 0 for wrong), totals them into an aggregate score, and uses statistical methods — measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), variability (range, quartile deviation, standard deviation) and correlation — to make inferences. The qualitative method is used when data are descriptive rather than numerical, as with participant observation or unstructured interviews (field notes, participants’ own words, photographs, recordings). Such complex human experiences cannot be reduced to scores, so the researcher uses techniques like narrative analysis and content analysis (building thematic categories from the data). The two methods are not contradictory but complementary — a suitable combination of both gives the fullest understanding of a phenomenon.
MCQs & Assertion–Reason
1. Which of the following is NOT a goal of psychological enquiry?
(a) Description (b) Prediction (c) Speculation (d) Control
2. A tentative, testable answer to a research problem is called a:
(a) theory (b) hypothesis (c) variable (d) norm
3. The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment is the:
For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.
A-R 1. Assertion: Methodology makes psychology a scientific endeavour.
Reason: Psychologists rely on formal, systematic observations to address their questions.
A-R 2. Assertion: Correlation between two variables proves that one causes the other.
Reason: A correlation coefficient shows the strength and direction of association between two variables.
A-R 3. Assertion: Psychological measurements do not have a true zero point.
Reason: No person in the world has zero intelligence, so psychologists fix an arbitrary zero.
A-R 4. Assertion: Laboratory experiments may have low external validity.
Reason: Highly controlled laboratory situations only simulate real-world situations and may not generalise.
A-R 5. Assertion: A questionnaire is well suited for collecting information from non-literate persons.
Reason: A questionnaire is a self-report method in which the respondent reads questions and writes the answers.
Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(A), 4-(A), 5-(D).
Exam Tips & Common Mistakes
How to score full marks in this chapter
Memorise the five goals (description, prediction, explanation, control, application) and the four steps of scientific research in order. For the experimental method, always be ready to define independent vs dependent variable and experimental vs control group with the Latane and Darley example. Remember the correlation range +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0 and that correlation means association, not cause. For test questions, link the four characteristics — objectivity, reliability, validity, norms. List the five ethical principles as bullet points. Use comparison-table answers (interview vs questionnaire, quantitative vs qualitative) to present two-sided differences clearly.
Common mistakes to avoid
Confusing the independent variable (cause, manipulated) with the dependent variable (effect, measured).
Claiming correlation proves causation — it only shows association and is used for prediction.
Mixing up reliability (consistency of scores) with validity (measuring what it claims).
Confusing naturalistic observation with controlled (laboratory) observation, or participant with non-participant.
Forgetting that the control group is identical to the experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent.
Listing only some ethical principles — remember all five: voluntary participation, informed consent, debriefing, sharing results, confidentiality.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Chapter 2 of Class 11 Psychology about?
Chapter 2, Methods of Enquiry in Psychology, explains the goals of psychological enquiry, the four steps of scientific research, the nature of psychological data, and the major methods — observation, experimental, correlational, survey, psychological testing and case study — along with quantitative and qualitative analysis, the limitations of psychological measurement and the ethical issues a researcher must follow.
What are the goals of psychological enquiry?
The goals are description, prediction, explanation and control of behaviour, plus the application of the knowledge generated, all pursued in an objective manner.
How many Review Questions are there in Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2?
The end-of-chapter Review Questions section of Methods of Enquiry in Psychology has 12 numbered questions, all reproduced verbatim and answered step by step on this page.
