NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2: Terms, Concepts and their Use in Sociology (NCERT 2026–27)
These Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2 solutions cover Terms, Concepts and their Use in Sociology from the NCERT textbook Introducing Sociology, updated for the 2026–27 session. The chapter explains why sociology needs a precise set of terms and concepts — even for the familiar social world — and then builds the core vocabulary of the subject: social groups (primary/secondary, community/association, in-group/out-group, reference and peer groups), social stratification (caste, class), status and role, and social control (formal/informal, sanctions, deviance). Below you get full, exam-ready answers to all five NCERT Exercises, clear notes on key terms, extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason questions and FAQs.
Class: 11Subject: SociologyBook: Introducing SociologyChapter: 2Chapter Name: Terms, Concepts and their Use in SociologySession: 2026–27
Chapter 2, Terms, Concepts and their Use in Sociology, argues that because sociology studies the familiar social world, it needs a special, precise terminology — otherwise we would simply equate sociological knowledge with common-sense knowledge. Concepts are described as “keys to open locks”: tools to understand reality, not final answers, which sociologists constantly question and modify. The chapter then develops the discipline’s basic vocabulary. It distinguishes aggregates and quasi groups from genuine social groups, and surveys the main types — primary and secondary groups, community and society/association, in-groups and out-groups, reference groups and peer groups. It explains social stratification as structured inequality, comparing the four historical systems (slavery, caste, estate, class) and the Marxist, Weberian and functionalist views of class. It defines status and role (ascribed vs achieved status, status set, status sequence, prestige, role conflict, role stereotyping), and finally social control — formal and informal, sanctions, deviance — from both functionalist and conflict perspectives.
Key Terms & Concepts
Aggregate: a simple collection of people who are in the same place at the same time but share no definite connection — e.g. passengers at a station or a cinema audience. Such aggregates are often called quasi groups.
Quasi group: an aggregate or combination which lacks structure or organisation, and whose members may be unaware or less aware of the grouping — e.g. social classes, status groups, age and gender groups, crowds. Quasi groups can become social groups in time (class/caste giving rise to political parties).
Social group: a collection of continuously interacting persons who share common interest, culture, values and norms within a society. Its features are persistent interaction, a stable pattern of interaction, a sense of belonging (‘we’ feeling), shared interest, acceptance of common norms and values, and a definable structure.
Primary group: a small group connected by intimate, face-to-face association and co-operation, person-oriented (family, village, groups of friends). Secondary group: relatively large, with formal, impersonal, goal-oriented relationships (schools, government offices, hospitals, students’ associations).
Community vs Society/Association:community refers to highly personal, intimate and enduring relationships (family, close friends); society or association refers to the impersonal, superficial and transitory relationships of modern urban life, based on contracts and self-interest.
In-group and Out-group: an in-group is marked by a sense of belonging that separates ‘us’/‘we’ from ‘them’/‘they’; an out-group is one to which in-group members do not belong, and can face hostility (e.g. migrants).
Reference group: a group whose lifestyle is emulated and aspired to, even though one does not belong to it — an important source of information about culture, lifestyle and goals (e.g. colonial middle-class Indians aspiring to the ‘proper Englishman’).
Peer group: a kind of primary group usually formed between people of similar age or in a common profession; peer pressure is the social pressure peers exert on what one ought to do.
Social stratification: the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in their access to material or symbolic rewards. The four historical systems are slavery, caste, estate and class.
Caste vs Class: in a caste system position is ascribed by birth (purity/pollution, varna and jati), fixed and rigid; the modern class system is open and achievement-based, defined by Marx through relation to the means of production, by Weber through ‘life-chances’, and by functionalists as a universal device for filling important positions.
Status and Role: a status is a position in society with defined rights and duties; a role is the dynamic, behavioural aspect of a status (“status is occupied, roles are played”). Related terms: status set (the multiple statuses an individual holds), status sequence (statuses attained in succession), ascribed status (by birth: age, caste, race, kinship), achieved status (by personal ability and choice), prestige (the value attached to a status), role conflict (incompatible expectations from two or more roles) and role stereotyping.
Social control: the means used by a society to bring its unruly members back into line. It may be formal (codified, systematic — law, the state) or informal (personal, unofficial — smiles, frowns, ridicule). A sanction is a reward or punishment reinforcing expected behaviour; deviance is action that does not conform to a group’s norms or values.
NCERT “Exercises” — Full Solutions
All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Exercises section. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style.
1. Why do we need to use special terms and concepts in sociology?
ANSWERSociology studies human social life, which is extremely familiar to us — we already live in families, belong to groups and use everyday words like ‘status’, ‘role’ or ‘social control’. This very familiarity is the problem. We are so well acquainted with the institutions around us that we cannot see them clearly and precisely. Without special terms we would simply equate sociological knowledge with common-sense knowledge or naturalistic explanation — for instance, assuming that because we live in families we already know all about families.A precise terminology is therefore even more important for sociology than for a subject like nuclear physics, where no everyday words exist anyway. Special terms allow sociologists to distinguish carefully between ideas (for example between an aggregate, a quasi group and a social group, or between status and role) that ordinary language blurs.These classifications and types are the tools through which we understand reality — “keys to open locks”, entry points into our understanding rather than final answers. And because society is diverse, sociology contains different and contesting concepts (functionalist and conflict views), which sociologists both use and constantly interrogate, modify or change when a concept no longer ‘fits the lock’.
2. As a member of society you must be interacting with and in different groups. How do you see these groups from a sociological perspective?
ANSWERFrom a sociological perspective, the many groups I interact with are not all of the same kind; they can be classified using the concepts of this chapter. (This is an experiential question, so examples may vary; a model answer follows.)Primary groups: my family and close circle of friends are small groups connected by intimate, face-to-face, person-oriented relationships and a strong sense of belonging.Secondary groups: my school, a coaching class or a sports federation are larger, formal, impersonal and goal-oriented — relationships exist mainly to achieve a purpose.Peer group: my friends of similar age form a peer group that exerts ‘peer pressure’ on how I dress, behave and the music or films I prefer.In-group and out-group: students of my own school form an in-group (‘we’) as against students of another school (an out-group, ‘they’).Reference group: a group I admire and try to emulate — say, successful seniors or professionals — is a reference group, even though I do not belong to it.Seeing groups this way shows that membership shapes my identity, interests and behaviour, and that these groups are not fixed: a quasi group can become a social group, and out-group members can over time become in-group members.
3. What have you observed about the stratification system existing in your society? How are individual lives affected by stratification?
ANSWERSocial stratification refers to structured inequalities between groups in their access to material or symbolic rewards — society arranged in ‘strata’ in a hierarchy, with the more favoured at the top and the less privileged at the bottom. (Observations may vary; a model answer follows.)In Indian society the main bases of stratification I observe are caste, class and gender. Caste position has historically been ascribed by birth and linked to ideas of purity and pollution; acute caste discrimination still exists, though democracy has allowed discriminated castes to assert their rights. Class stratification, based on income, occupation and ownership, decides who can afford good housing, education and healthcare. Gender too creates unequal access to opportunities.How individual lives are affected: inequality of power and advantage is central to sociology because every aspect of an individual’s life is shaped by stratification. Opportunities for health, longevity, security, educational success, fulfilment in work and political influence are all distributed unequally in systematic ways. A child born into a privileged caste or class enjoys better life-chances, while those at the lower levels are disadvantaged both socially and economically. Although stories of upward social mobility exist (such as the rise of President K. R. Narayanan), the structure of the system largely persists, so stratification continues to fix the starting point and possibilities of individual lives.
4. What is social control? Do you think the modes of social control in different spheres of society are different? Discuss.
ANSWERSocial control refers to the various means, processes, techniques and strategies used by a society to regulate the behaviour of individuals and groups — to bring its recalcitrant or unruly members back into line and maintain social order and cohesion. It includes both the use of force and the enforcing of values and patterns for maintaining order.Perspectives differ: for functionalists, social control restrains deviant behaviour and maintains harmony and stability. For conflict theorists, it is largely a mechanism by which dominant social classes impose their control on the rest of society, so ‘stability’ means the writ of one section over another and law becomes the formal writ of the powerful.Yes, the modes of social control differ across spheres. Social control may be formal — codified, systematic and exercised through agencies like law and the state, emphasised in modern societies — or informal — personal, unofficial and uncodified, such as smiles, frowns, body language, criticism, ridicule and laughter, exercised through family, religion and kinship. In the sphere of the state and workplace, formal rules, courts and police operate; within the family, peer group or community, informal sanctions dominate and can be very subtle yet powerful (e.g. a child teased for being ‘different’). A sanction, the reward or punishment that reinforces expected behaviour, can be positive (rewarding good behaviour) or negative (restraining deviance). Thus the spheres of family, religion, market and state each rely on different combinations of formal and informal control.
5. Identify the different roles and status that you play and are located in. Do you think roles and status change? Discuss when and how they change.
ANSWERA status is a position in society with defined rights and duties, while a role is the dynamic, behavioural aspect of that status — status is occupied, but roles are played. Every individual in a complex society occupies many statuses, called a status set. (Examples are personal; a model answer follows.)My statuses and roles: I am a student to my teacher, a son/daughter to my parents, a brother/sister to my sibling, a friend within my peer group, a customer to a shopkeeper and a patient to a doctor. Each status carries its own role — the expected pattern of behaviour, rights and duties.Yes, roles and status change. They change in two main ways. (i) Over the life course: a person moves through a status sequence — a son becomes a father, then a grandfather and great-grandfather. Statuses may be ascribed (by birth: age, caste, kinship) or achieved (voluntarily, through education, ability and choice); modern societies stress achievement, so “you have to prove yourself”. (ii) Through social change and struggle: roles and status are not given and fixed — people fight against discriminatory roles based on caste, race or gender, so what counts as a person’s proper role can change with time (for example, a woman becoming an astronaut may be seen as deviant in one period and applauded in another). Conflicting expectations from two or more statuses also produce role conflict — as for a working mother juggling home and profession, or for men in Khasi matriliny — which can lead people to renegotiate their roles. Because individuals exercise agency in socialisation, they do not simply take on roles but create and negotiate them.
Extra Practice Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
Q1. Distinguish between an aggregate and a social group.
ANSWERAn aggregate is a mere collection of people in the same place at the same time who share no definite connection, such as passengers at a railway station or a cinema audience (also called a quasi group). A social group, by contrast, is a collection of people who interact continuously, share common interest, values and norms, have a sense of belonging and a definable structure. The presence of persistent, patterned interaction and a ‘we’ feeling is what turns a mere gathering into a social group.
Q2. What is a reference group? Give an example.
ANSWERA reference group is a group whose lifestyle is emulated and aspired to even though one does not actually belong to it; it is an important source of information about culture, lifestyle, aspirations and goals. For example, in the colonial period many middle-class Indians took the ‘proper Englishman’ as a reference group and tried to dress and behave like the British.
Q3. Differentiate between ascribed status and achieved status.
ANSWERAn ascribed status is a social position a person occupies by birth or involuntarily, based on age, caste, race or kinship; it marks simple and traditional societies. An achieved status is one a person occupies voluntarily through personal ability, achievements, virtues and choices, based on factors like educational qualifications, income and professional expertise; modern societies are characterised by achievement. However, even in modern societies, ascribed status still matters.
Q4. What is role conflict? Illustrate with an example.
ANSWERRole conflict is the incompatibility among the roles corresponding to one or more statuses; it occurs when two or more roles make contrary demands on a person. A common example is a middle-class working woman who must juggle her role as mother and wife at home with her role as a professional at work. Sociology, being empirical and comparative, shows that men too face role conflict — for instance, men in Khasi matriliny torn between their natal house and their wife and children.
Q5. What is the difference between formal and informal social control?
ANSWERFormal social control uses codified, systematic mechanisms exercised through agencies such as law and the state; it is emphasised in modern societies. Informal social control is personal, unofficial and uncodified — smiles, frowns, body language, criticism, ridicule and laughter, exercised through agencies like family, religion and kinship. Informal control is often very effective in day-to-day life, but where it is inadequate, formal mechanisms are used to enforce conformity.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q1. Explain the main types of social groups discussed in sociology.
ANSWERSociologists classify groups by contrasting traditional, small-scale societies (close, face-to-face interaction) with modern, large-scale societies (impersonal, distant interaction). Primary groups are small, connected by intimate, face-to-face association and co-operation, person-oriented, with a strong sense of belonging — family, village and groups of friends. Secondary groups are relatively large, formal, impersonal and goal-oriented — schools, government offices, hospitals and students’ associations. The similar contrast of community vs society/association distinguishes highly personal, intimate, enduring relationships from the impersonal, transitory, contractual relations of urban life. In-groups are marked by a ‘we’ feeling that separates ‘us’ from ‘them’, while out-groups (e.g. migrants) are those one does not belong to and may face hostility. A reference group is one whose lifestyle is emulated though one is not a member, and a peer group is a primary group of people of similar age or profession that exerts peer pressure. These types are not rigid: concepts are keys, not frozen categories, and groups change over time.
Q2. Compare the Marxist, Weberian and functionalist explanations of class.
ANSWERClass is a system of social stratification, and three classical explanations are given. In Marxist theory, social classes are defined by their relation to the means of production: whether a group owns means of production such as land or factories, or owns nothing but its own labour. Class and conflict are central, with society seen as essentially conflict-ridden. Weber used the term life-chances — the rewards and advantages afforded by one’s market capacity. For Weber, inequality could be based on economic relations but also on prestige (social status) or on political power, giving a multi-dimensional view. The functionalist theory begins from the belief that no society is ‘classless’ or unstratified; stratification is a universal, unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are filled by the most qualified persons, by placing and motivating individuals in the social structure. Thus Marx stresses ownership and conflict, Weber stresses market position, prestige and power, and functionalism stresses the supposed social necessity of inequality.
Q3. Discuss social control from the functionalist and conflict perspectives, and explain its formal and informal forms.
ANSWERSocial control refers to the means, processes and strategies by which a society regulates the behaviour of individuals and groups to maintain order and cohesion. From the functionalist perspective, society is essentially harmonious, and social control (i) uses force to regulate behaviour and (ii) enforces values and patterns to maintain order; it restrains deviance and is necessary for stability. From the conflict perspective, society is essentially unequal and exploitative, so social control is mainly a mechanism by which dominant social classes impose their will on the rest — ‘stability’ becomes the writ of one section over another, and law becomes the formal writ of the powerful. Social control also takes two forms. Formal social control is codified and systematic, exercised through agencies such as law and the state, and is emphasised in modern societies. Informal social control is personal, unofficial and uncodified — smiles, frowns, ridicule, criticism — exercised through family, religion and kinship; it is effective in everyday life but where it fails, formal control is used. A sanction (positive or negative) reinforces expected behaviour, and deviance — action not conforming to a group’s norms — varies across cultures and changes from one period to another.
MCQs & Assertion–Reason
1. Passengers waiting at a railway station are an example of:
(a) a primary group (b) a social group (c) an aggregate / quasi group (d) a reference group
2. Which of the following is a primary group?
(a) A government office (b) A hospital (c) A students’ association (d) The family
3. A small group connected by intimate, face-to-face association and co-operation is described as:
For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.
A-R 1. Assertion: Terminology is even more important for sociology than for nuclear physics.
Reason: Sociology’s subject matter is so familiar that everyday words can blur it, so special terms are needed for precision.
A-R 2. Assertion: Every gathering of people constitutes a social group.
Reason: A social group requires persistent, patterned interaction, a sense of belonging and a definable structure.
A-R 3. Assertion: Secondary groups are person-oriented and based on intimate relationships.
Reason: Secondary groups are relatively large and maintain formal, impersonal, goal-oriented relationships.
A-R 4. Assertion: Social stratification affects every aspect of an individual’s life.
Reason: Opportunities for health, education, security and political influence are distributed unequally in systematic ways.
A-R 5. Assertion: Roles and status are given, fixed and unchanging.
Reason: People struggle against discriminatory roles, and what counts as deviant in one period may be applauded in another.
Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(D), 4-(A), 5-(D).
Exam Tips & Common Mistakes
How to score full marks in this chapter
Learn the precise definitions and at least one textbook example for each concept — aggregate/quasi group, social group (its six features), primary/secondary, community/association, in-group/out-group, reference and peer groups, stratification, status and role, and social control. For ‘difference between’ questions, use a clear two-column structure with one example each. Remember the “concepts are keys to open locks” idea to frame Q1, and always present the functionalist vs conflict contrast when discussing stratification or social control. Quote the chapter’s own examples — Marx, Weber and functionalism on class; the working-woman and Khasi role-conflict cases; M. N. Srinivas on migrants as out-groups — to show depth.
Common mistakes to avoid
Treating any crowd or aggregate as a ‘social group’ — a social group needs continuous interaction and a sense of belonging.
Confusing primary (intimate, person-oriented) with secondary (formal, goal-oriented) groups.
Mixing up status (a position) with role (the behaviour played out) — status is occupied, roles are played.
Confusing ascribed status (by birth) with achieved status (by personal effort).
Giving only the functionalist view of social control and forgetting the conflict perspective (or vice versa).
Calling deviance an absolute — what is deviant varies across cultures and changes over time.
Leaving the experiential questions (Q2, Q3, Q5) blank — give your own examples linked to the correct concepts.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Chapter 2 of Class 11 Sociology (Introducing Sociology) about?
Chapter 2, Terms, Concepts and their Use in Sociology, explains why sociology needs a special, precise terminology and then builds the discipline’s core vocabulary: social groups (primary/secondary, community/association, in-group/out-group, reference and peer groups), social stratification (caste and class), status and role, and social control (formal/informal, sanctions and deviance).
What is the difference between status and role in sociology?
A status is a position in society with defined rights and duties, while a role is the dynamic, behavioural aspect of that status — the way the position is acted out. As the textbook puts it, “status is occupied, but roles are played”; a status is essentially an institutionalised, regularised role.
How many questions are in the NCERT exercise for Class 11 Sociology Chapter 2?
The end-of-chapter Exercises section of Introducing Sociology Chapter 2 contains 5 numbered questions, all reproduced verbatim and answered in detail, in exam-ready style, on this page.
