NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 10: The Philosophy of the Constitution (NCERT 2026–27)

These Class 11 Political Science Chapter 10 solutions cover The Philosophy of the Constitution, the concluding chapter of the textbook Indian Constitution at Work. The chapter asks why we need a political-philosophy approach to the Constitution, what the core features of the Indian Constitution are — individual freedom, social justice, respect for diversity and minority rights, secularism, universal franchise, federalism and a common national identity — and what its procedural achievements, criticisms and limitations are. Below you will find every end-of-chapter exercise question reproduced verbatim and answered in exam-ready style, along with key concepts, extra practice questions, MCQs, Assertion–Reason questions and FAQs for the 2026–27 session.

Class: 11 Subject: Political Science Book: Indian Constitution at Work Chapter: 10 Chapter Name: The Philosophy of the Constitution Session: 2026–27
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Class 11 Political Science Chapter 10 – Overview

Chapter 10, The Philosophy of the Constitution, argues that a constitution is not merely a collection of laws but a document grounded in a moral vision. It therefore calls for a political-philosophy approach — understanding the conceptual structure of the Constitution, working out a coherent vision of society embedded in it, and reading it alongside the Constituent Assembly Debates. The Constitution is presented as a means of democratic transformation: it limits the power of the state and empowers those historically deprived of power. The chapter identifies five substantive core features — individual freedom, social justice, respect for diversity and minority rights, secularism, universal franchise, federalism and national identity — and two procedural achievements: a faith in political deliberation and a spirit of compromise and accommodation. It then examines three criticisms (that the Constitution is unwieldy, unrepresentative and alien) and three limitations (a centralised idea of national unity, inadequate attention to gender justice, and the placing of socio-economic rights in the Directive Principles), concluding that none of these are serious enough to jeopardise its philosophy — best summed up in the Preamble’s opening words, ‘We, the people of India…’.

Key Concepts & Terms

Philosophy of the Constitution: the set of moral values and ideals on which the Constitution is based. Studying it means looking beyond the legal text to the vision of society and polity the document seeks to realise.

Political-philosophy approach: an approach that (i) clarifies the conceptual structure of the Constitution (the meaning of terms like ‘rights’, ‘citizenship’, ‘minority’, ‘democracy’), (ii) works out a coherent vision of society embedded in it, and (iii) reads the Constitution together with the Constituent Assembly Debates to justify its values.

Constitution as means of democratic transformation: the Constitution both restricts the exercise of state power (to prevent tyranny) and empowers vulnerable, historically deprived groups, providing peaceful, democratic means of social change.

Individual freedom: the Constitution’s strong liberal commitment to freedoms such as freedom of expression, freedom of conscience and freedom from arbitrary arrest — the product of over a century of intellectual and political activity from Rammohan Roy onwards.

Social justice: Indian liberalism is linked to social justice — for example, reservation of seats and jobs for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, to overcome age-old injustices that mere formal equality could not remove.

Secularism (principled distance): the Indian model differs from Western ‘mutual exclusion’. It grants rights to religious communities and allows the state to intervene in or abstain from religion depending on which course better promotes liberty, equality and social justice.

Universal (adult) franchise: the grant of the right to vote to every adult citizen irrespective of caste, class, gender or property — a remarkable achievement adopted almost uncontested in a deeply unequal society.

Asymmetric federalism: the constitutional difference in the legal status and prerogatives of sub-units (e.g. special provisions under Articles 370 and 371/371A) to meet the specific needs of particular regions, unlike the symmetry of American federalism.

Procedural achievements: the Constitution’s faith in political deliberation (an inclusive, reasoned process) and its spirit of compromise and accommodation — trading off one value partly for another through free deliberation among equals.

Criticisms & limitations: criticisms — that the Constitution is unwieldy, unrepresentative and alien; limitations — a centralised idea of national unity, inadequate attention to gender justice (especially within the family), and the relegation of socio-economic rights to the Directive Principles.

NCERT Exercise — Full Solutions

All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Exercises. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style.

1. The following are certain laws. Are they connected with any value? If yes, then what is the underlying value? Give reasons. a. Both daughters and sons will have share in the family property. b. There will be different slabs of sales tax on different consumer items. c. Religious instructions will not be given in any government school. d. There shall be no begar or forced labour.

ANSWER Yes, each of these laws is connected to a moral value, which shows that laws and values are not separate. The underlying values are: a. Equality (gender justice): giving daughters and sons an equal share in family property removes the traditional discrimination against women and treats both sexes as equals. The value is equality — specifically gender equality. b. Economic justice / equality: charging higher sales tax on luxury items and lower (or no) tax on essential items asks the better-off to contribute more and protects the poor. The underlying value is economic justice and a fairer distribution of the tax burden. c. Secularism: barring religious instruction in government schools keeps state-run institutions neutral among religions and protects every student’s freedom of conscience. The value is secularism and equal respect for all faiths. d. Freedom and human dignity: prohibiting begar and forced labour protects people from exploitation and bondage. The underlying values are liberty, human dignity and freedom against exploitation.

2. Which of the options given below cannot be used to complete the following statement? Democratic countries need a constitution to i. Check the power of the government. ii. Protect minorities from majority. iii. Bring independence from colonial rule. iv. Ensure that a long-term vision is not lost by momentary passions. v. Bring social change in peaceful manner.

ANSWER The option that cannot be used is (iii) Bring independence from colonial rule. Reason: a constitution is adopted by a free, self-governing country; it does not by itself bring independence from colonial rule. Independence is won through a political struggle, and a constitution comes afterwards. The other purposes — checking the power of government, protecting minorities from the majority, safeguarding a long-term vision against momentary passions, and enabling peaceful social change — are all genuine reasons why democracies need a constitution.

3. The following are different positions about reading and understanding Constituent Assembly debates. i. Which of these statements argues that Constituent Assembly debates are relevant even today? Which statement says that they are not relevant? ii. With which of these positions do you agree and why? a. Common people are too busy in earning livelihood and meeting different pressures of life. They can’t understand the legal language of these debates. b. The conditions and challenges today are different from the time when the Constitution was made. To read the ideas of Constitution makers and use them for our new times is trying to bring past in the present. c. Our ways of understanding the world and the present challenges have not changed totally. Constituent Assembly debates can provide us reasons why certain practises are important. In a period when constitutional practises are being challenged, not knowing the reasons can destroy them.

ANSWER (i) Relevance of the debates: Statement (c) argues that the Constituent Assembly debates are relevant even today, because our ways of understanding the world have not changed totally and the debates explain why certain constitutional practices are important. Statements (a) and (b) argue that they are not relevant — (a) because ordinary people cannot follow their legal language, and (b) because today’s conditions are different and using old ideas means dragging the past into the present. (ii) The position I agree with: I agree with statement (c). India’s present world has not separated drastically from the world of the framers; our basic values — liberty, equality, fraternity and secularism — are still the same. The debates record the reasons behind our constitutional provisions, and a value is properly justified only when these reasons are understood. When constitutional practices are challenged or threatened, forgetting why they exist can be harmful and can destroy them; revisiting the debates helps us defend and refine these practices. Hence a history of our Constitution is ‘still very much a history of the present’.

4. Explain the difference between the Indian Constitution and western ideas in the light of a. Understanding of secularism. b. Articles 370 and 371. c. Affirmative action. d. Universal adult franchise.

ANSWER a. Secularism: Western secularism rests on the mutual exclusion of state and religion — each stays out of the other’s affairs to protect individual freedom. Indian secularism follows principled distance: the state may either intervene in religion (for example, abolishing untouchability) or help it (for example, aiding minority educational institutions) depending on which course better promotes liberty, equality and social justice. It also recognises the rights of religious communities, not just of individuals. b. Articles 370 and 371: American federalism is constitutionally symmetric — all states have the same status. The Indian Constitution is consciously asymmetric: Articles 370 and 371/371A gave special provisions to states such as Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland to meet their specific needs and protect their local identity. This differential treatment is regarded as legitimate, not as something undesirable. c. Affirmative action: classical Western liberalism privileges the rights of individuals over the demands of social justice. The Indian Constitution links liberalism to social justice from the start — providing reservation of seats and jobs for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. India entrenched such affirmative action in its Constitution almost two decades before the U.S. began similar programmes after the 1964 Civil Rights Act. d. Universal adult franchise: in stable Western democracies the right to vote was extended only gradually — women and the working class won it after long struggles. India adopted universal adult franchise at once and almost uncontested with the very first general election, despite widespread poverty, illiteracy and deep social hierarchies — a remarkable show of faith in the common citizen.

5. Which of the following principles of secularism are adopted in the Constitution of India? a. that state will have nothing to do with religion b. that state will have close relation with religion c. that state can discriminate among religions d. that state will recognise rights of religious groups e. that state will have limited powers to intervene in affairs of religions

ANSWER The principles adopted in the Constitution of India are (d) that the state will recognise the rights of religious groups, and (e) that the state will have limited powers to intervene in the affairs of religions. Reasons: Indian secularism follows ‘principled distance’. The state grants community-based rights, such as the right of religious communities to establish and run their own educational institutions — hence (d). It also keeps an arm’s-length distance from religion but may intervene in a limited way to promote liberty and equality, for example by abolishing untouchability — hence (e). Option (a) is wrong because the state is not fully separated from religion; (b) is wrong because the state does not maintain a close relation with any religion; and (c) is wrong because the state must not discriminate among religions.

6. Match the following.

ANSWER
Column AColumn B
a. Freedom to criticise treatment of widowsiv. Liberal individualism
b. Taking decisions in the constituent assembly on the basis of reason, not self interestii. Procedural achievement
c. Accepting importance of community in an individual’s lifei. Substantive achievement
d. Article 370 and 371v. Attention to requirements of a particular region
e. Unequal rights to women regarding family property and childreniii. Neglect of gender justice
Final pairs: a–iv, b–ii, c–i, d–v, e–iii.

7. This discussion was taking place in a class. Read the various arguments and state which of these do you agree with and why. Jayesh: I still think that our Constitution is only a borrowed document. Saba: Do you mean to say that there is nothing Indian in it? But is there such a thing as Indian and western in the case of values and ideas? Take equality between men and women. What is western about it? And even if it is, should we reject it only because it is western? Jayesh: What I mean is that after fighting for independence from the British, did we not adopt their system of parliamentary government? Neha: You forget that when we fought the British, we were not against the British as such, we were against the principle of colonialism. That has nothing to do with adopting a system of government that we wanted, wherever it came from.

ANSWER I agree with the arguments made by Saba and Neha, and disagree with Jayesh. Jayesh treats the Constitution as merely ‘borrowed’, but Saba rightly points out that values such as equality between men and women have no fixed nationality — they are universal human ideals, and it makes no sense to reject a good idea simply because it is labelled ‘western’. Neha’s point is equally strong: the freedom struggle was against the principle of colonialism, not against everything British. Adopting a parliamentary system that suited our needs was a free, deliberate choice, not blind imitation. As the chapter explains, the framers engaged in innovative and selective adaptation, not mere borrowing — combining modern and traditional Indian values into a distinctive, ‘alternative modernity’. The Constitution is modern and partly western, but it carries our own distinct imprint, so the charge that it is ‘only a borrowed document’ is not justified.

8. Why is it said that the making of the Indian Constitution was unrepresentative? Does that make the Constitution unrepresentative? Give reasons for your answer.

ANSWER Why the making is called unrepresentative: the members of the Constituent Assembly were not elected by universal adult franchise. At that time adult franchise had not yet been granted, and most members were chosen by a restricted franchise and came from the advanced sections of society. In terms of the voice component of representation — people being recognised in their own language or voice — the Assembly was indeed unrepresentative. Does that make the Constitution unrepresentative? No. We must distinguish two components of representation: voice and opinion. While the Assembly lacked the voice dimension, it was rich in the opinion dimension. The debates show that almost every shade of opinion was expressed; members raised issues not only on their own social concerns but on the perceived interests of many social sections. The result is that the Constitution reflects the aspirations of a wide range of groups — which is why, far from being merely symbolic, statues of Dr. Ambedkar holding the Constitution express the feeling among Dalits that it embodies many of their aspirations. So an unrepresentative process produced a substantially representative Constitution.

9. One of the limitations of the Constitution of India is that it does not adequately attend to gender justice. What evidence can you give to substantiate this charge? If you were writing the Constitution today, what provisions would you recommend for remedying this limitation?

ANSWER Evidence for the charge: the Constitution glossed over several issues of gender justice, particularly within the family. Matters such as equal rights of women in family property, inheritance and decisions about children were left largely to personal laws that often treated women unequally. The original framework did not directly secure full equality for women inside the household, and important reforms had to come later through ordinary legislation rather than constitutional guarantee. Provisions I would recommend today: (i) an explicit fundamental right guaranteeing women equal rights within the family — in property, inheritance, marriage, divorce and guardianship of children; (ii) a uniform standard ensuring gender equality across all personal laws; (iii) constitutional reservation of seats for women in Parliament and the State Legislatures to strengthen their political voice; (iv) clear protection against domestic violence and discrimination at the workplace; and (v) recognition of equal pay for equal work as an enforceable right. These would close the gap between the Constitution’s ideal of equality and women’s actual position, especially within the family.

10. Do you agree with the statement that “it is not clear why in a poor developing country, certain basic socio-economic rights were relegated to the section on Directive Principles rather than made an integral feature of our Fundamental Rights”? Give reasons for your answer. What do you think are the possible reasons for putting socio-economic rights in the section on Directive Principles?

ANSWER My view: I partly agree with the statement. In a poor country, socio-economic rights such as the right to work, education, food and a decent livelihood are basic to a life of dignity, so there is a strong case for treating them as enforceable Fundamental Rights rather than as non-justiciable Directive Principles. To that extent the criticism is fair and points to a real limitation. Possible reasons for placing them in the Directive Principles: (i) Resource constraints — a newly independent, poor country could not immediately guarantee jobs, education and welfare to all, so making them enforceable would have invited claims the state could not meet; (ii) Gradual realisation — these rights need a developed economy and large public spending, so they were set as goals the state must progressively work towards; (iii) Avoiding pressure on courts — courts cannot order the creation of resources, so these matters were left to elected governments through policy and budgets; and (iv) Flexibility — the Directive Principles give the state freedom to design schemes suited to changing conditions. Over time, however, the judiciary has read several of these (such as the right to education and livelihood) into the Fundamental Rights, narrowing the original gap.

11. How did your school celebrate the Constitution Day on November 26th?

ANSWER This is an activity question, so write about what your own school actually did; a model answer is given below. Our school celebrated Constitution Day (Samvidhan Divas) on 26 November — the date the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution in 1949. The day began with a special assembly where the Principal explained why the Constitution is the supreme law of the land. Students and teachers together took the Preamble pledge, reading aloud ‘We, the people of India…’. We held a quiz on the Fundamental Rights and Duties, an essay and poster competition on the theme ‘Our Constitution, Our Pride’, and a short skit on the making of the Constitution and the role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. A teacher spoke on the core values of liberty, equality, fraternity and secularism, and the day ended with a resolve to respect the Constitution in everyday life. (Replace this with your own school’s actual activities.)

Extra Practice Questions

Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. What is meant by the ‘philosophy of the Constitution’?

ANSWERThe philosophy of the Constitution refers to the set of moral values and ideals on which the document is based. It treats the Constitution not as a mere collection of laws but as the embodiment of a moral vision of society and polity — one committed to freedom, equality, social justice, secularism and national unity.

Q2. What are the three things involved in a political-philosophy approach to the Constitution?

ANSWERA political-philosophy approach involves: (i) understanding the conceptual structure of the Constitution — the meaning of terms like ‘rights’, ‘citizenship’ and ‘democracy’; (ii) working out a coherent vision of society and polity embedded in it; and (iii) reading the Constitution together with the Constituent Assembly Debates to justify the values it contains.

Q3. What is meant by ‘principled distance’ in Indian secularism?

ANSWERPrincipled distance is the idea that the state keeps a distance from all religions yet may either intervene in or abstain from religious affairs depending on which choice better promotes liberty, equality and social justice. It allows the state to abolish practices like untouchability while also aiding minority educational institutions.

Q4. State any two procedural achievements of the Indian Constitution.

ANSWERThe two procedural achievements are: (i) a faith in political deliberation — an inclusive, open-ended process in which outcomes are justified by reasons rather than self-interest; and (ii) a spirit of compromise and accommodation — partly trading off one value for another through free deliberation among equals, and preferring consensus to majority vote on important issues.

Q5. Why is universal franchise considered an achievement of the Indian Constitution?

ANSWERUniversal franchise is an achievement because India granted the right to vote to every adult citizen at once and almost uncontested, despite widespread poverty, illiteracy and rigid social hierarchies. In contrast, even stable Western democracies extended the vote to women and workers only gradually after long struggles. It showed deep faith in the common citizen and in democracy.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Discuss the core (substantive) features of the Indian Constitution as described in the chapter.

ANSWERThe chapter identifies several substantive features that are also achievements of the Constitution. Individual freedom: the Constitution has a strong liberal character, protecting freedom of expression, conscience and freedom from arbitrary arrest. Social justice: unlike classical Western liberalism, Indian liberalism is linked to social justice, providing reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Respect for diversity and minority rights: it grants community-based rights, such as the right of religious communities to run their own educational institutions, and fosters equal respect among communities. Secularism: it follows principled distance rather than strict mutual exclusion. Universal franchise: the vote was given to every adult at once. Federalism: it adopts asymmetric federalism (Articles 370, 371) to meet regional needs while keeping a strong centre. National identity: it reinforces a common national identity compatible with distinct religious and linguistic identities, rejecting separate electorates in favour of fraternity. Together these features express the Constitution’s moral vision.

Q2. Examine the three main criticisms of the Indian Constitution and assess how valid they are.

ANSWERThree criticisms are commonly made. First, that it is unwieldy — too long for a single document. But this assumes that an entire constitution must fit one compact text, which is not even true of the U.S. India simply chose to include in one document many matters (like the Election Commission and Public Service Commissions) that other countries leave outside, so its length is a matter of design, not a real fault. Second, that it is unrepresentative — because the Constituent Assembly was elected by a restricted franchise. This is true of the voice dimension, but not of the opinion dimension: the debates show a vast range of views and social concerns were represented, and Dalits feel the Constitution reflects their aspirations. Third, that it is alien — borrowed article by article from the West. But the borrowing was innovative and selective, amalgamating western and Indian values into an ‘alternative modernity’ with our own imprint; many Indians made modern ideas their own. On examination, none of these criticisms seriously damages the Constitution’s philosophy.

Q3. “The Indian Constitution is a means of democratic transformation.” Explain this statement.

ANSWERA constitution is usually seen as a device to restrict the exercise of power, because modern states are very powerful and can turn tyrannical if their institutions fall into the wrong hands. The Indian Constitution does this by laying down the basic rules of the game that keep the state in check. But it goes further: it provides peaceful, democratic means to bring about social transformation, and for a once-colonised people it embodied the first real exercise of political self-determination. Nehru saw the Constituent Assembly as a ‘nation on the move’, fashioning a new garment of its own making. By guaranteeing equality, reservations and community rights, the Constitution not only limits those in power but empowers groups traditionally deprived of it, giving vulnerable people the power to achieve a collective good. In this way it transforms an unequal, hierarchical society peacefully through democratic means — which is why it is called a means of democratic transformation.

MCQs & Assertion–Reason

1. The ‘philosophy of the Constitution’ mainly refers to:

(a) the legal procedure to amend it    (b) the set of moral values and ideals on which it is based    (c) the list of all its articles    (d) the name of its drafting committee

2. A political-philosophy approach to the Constitution requires reading it together with the:

(a) Government of India Act, 1935    (b) British Constitution    (c) Constituent Assembly Debates    (d) Supreme Court judgments only

3. Indian secularism is best described by the idea of:

(a) mutual exclusion    (b) state religion    (c) principled distance    (d) total separation

4. Reservation of seats and jobs for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is an example of the Constitution’s commitment to:

(a) social justice    (b) federalism    (c) universal franchise    (d) national unity

5. Articles 370 and 371 are cited in the chapter as examples of:

(a) symmetric federalism    (b) asymmetric federalism    (c) unitary government    (d) separate electorates

6. Which of the following is a procedural achievement of the Constitution?

(a) Universal franchise    (b) Social justice    (c) Faith in political deliberation    (d) Individual freedom

7. The criticism that the Constitution is ‘unwieldy’ refers to the fact that it is:

(a) too rigid to amend    (b) very large/long in size    (c) written in English    (d) too federal

8. Distinguishing ‘voice’ and ‘opinion’ helps answer the criticism that the Constitution is:

(a) alien    (b) unwieldy    (c) unrepresentative    (d) too secular

9. According to the chapter, the best summary of the philosophy of the Constitution is found in the:

(a) Directive Principles    (b) Preamble    (c) Fundamental Duties    (d) Seventh Schedule

10. Which of the following is listed as a limitation of the Indian Constitution?

(a) Strong liberal character    (b) Inadequate attention to gender justice within the family    (c) Commitment to secularism    (d) Universal franchise

Answer key: 1-(b), 2-(c), 3-(c), 4-(a), 5-(b), 6-(c), 7-(b), 8-(c), 9-(b), 10-(b).

For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.

A-R 1. Assertion: A constitution is more than a collection of laws.

Reason: Many laws are closely connected to deeply held moral values such as equality.

A-R 2. Assertion: Indian secularism means strict mutual exclusion of state and religion.

Reason: The Indian state follows principled distance and may intervene in religion to promote equality.

A-R 3. Assertion: The making of the Indian Constitution can be called unrepresentative.

Reason: The members of the Constituent Assembly were chosen by a restricted franchise, not universal suffrage.

A-R 4. Assertion: The Indian Constitution adopted symmetric federalism like the United States.

Reason: Articles 370 and 371 give special status to certain states to meet their specific needs.

A-R 5. Assertion: The Indian Constitution committed itself to universal adult franchise from the very beginning.

Reason: Indian nationalism conceived of a political order based on the will of every member of society.

Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(A), 4-(D), 5-(A).

Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

How to score full marks in this chapter

Memorise the five substantive core features (individual freedom, social justice, respect for diversity and minority rights, secularism, federalism with national identity) and the two procedural achievements (faith in political deliberation, spirit of compromise and accommodation). For comparison questions, present India versus the West side by side — principled distance vs mutual exclusion for secularism, asymmetric vs symmetric federalism, and affirmative action entrenched in India before the 1964 U.S. Civil Rights Act. Always link the voice/opinion distinction to the ‘unrepresentative’ criticism, and remember the three criticisms (unwieldy, unrepresentative, alien) and three limitations (centralised national unity, gender justice, socio-economic rights in Directive Principles). Quote the Preamble’s ‘We, the people of India…’ in your conclusion.

Common mistakes to avoid

  • Saying a constitution can “bring independence from colonial rule” — it is adopted after independence (see Q2).
  • Describing Indian secularism as ‘mutual exclusion’ — it is ‘principled distance’.
  • Confusing substantive achievements (the core features) with procedural achievements (deliberation, compromise).
  • Confusing the three criticisms (unwieldy, unrepresentative, alien) with the three limitations (centralised unity, gender justice, socio-economic rights).
  • Claiming the Constitution is “only borrowed” — it was innovative, selective adaptation, not blind imitation.
  • Leaving activity questions (Q11, Constitution Day) blank — give a model answer about your own school.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Chapter 10 of Class 11 Political Science (Indian Constitution at Work) about?

Chapter 10, The Philosophy of the Constitution, explains why we need a political-philosophy approach to the Constitution, describes its core features (individual freedom, social justice, secularism, universal franchise, federalism and national identity), its procedural achievements, and the main criticisms and limitations — concluding that none of these jeopardise its underlying moral vision.

How is Indian secularism different from Western secularism?

Western secularism rests on the mutual exclusion of state and religion. Indian secularism follows ‘principled distance’: the state keeps a distance from all religions but may intervene in or abstain from religious affairs depending on which course better promotes liberty, equality and social justice, and it recognises the rights of religious communities.

What are the criticisms and limitations of the Indian Constitution discussed in this chapter?

The three criticisms are that the Constitution is unwieldy, unrepresentative and alien. The three limitations are its centralised idea of national unity, inadequate attention to gender justice (especially within the family), and the placing of basic socio-economic rights in the Directive Principles rather than the Fundamental Rights.

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