NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology Chapter 7: Thinking (NCERT 2026–27)
These Class 11 Psychology Chapter 7 solutions cover Thinking, the chapter that treats thinking as the base of all higher cognition. It explains the nature of thinking and its building blocks (mental images and concepts), the complex processes of problem solving, reasoning and decision-making, the nature, process and strategies of creative thinking, and the close relationship between thought and language along with how language develops. Below you get step-by-step answers to all Review Questions, clear notes on key terms, extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason questions and FAQs — written in CBSE exam-ready style for the 2026–27 session.
Chapter 7, Thinking, presents thinking as a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyse acquired or stored information by abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging and decision-making. Thinking is organised, goal-directed and internal — it can only be inferred from behaviour. It relies on two building blocks: mental images (mental representations of sensory experience) and concepts (mental representations of a category of objects, ideas or events that share common properties). The chapter then explores the chief thought processes — problem solving (goal-directed thinking, with obstacles such as mental set, functional fixedness and lack of motivation), reasoning (deductive, inductive and analogical), and decision-making (choosing among known alternatives by weighing cost and benefit). It examines creative thinking — Guilford’s convergent and divergent thinking, the four divergent abilities (fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration), the creative process (preparation, incubation, illumination, verification) and strategies to enhance it. Finally, it discusses the relationship between thought and language (Whorf, Piaget, Vygotsky) and how language develops from crying and babbling to the one-word and two-word stages.
Key Terms & Concepts
Thinking: a higher mental process of manipulating and analysing information; it is organised, goal-directed, internal, and inferred from behaviour.
Mental image: a mental representation of a sensory experience that can be used to think about things, places and events (e.g. picturing a route on a road map).
Concept: a mental representation of a category — a class of objects, ideas or events that share common properties (e.g. ‘fruit’, ‘furniture’). Concepts make thought quick and efficient.
Problem solving: goal-directed thinking in which an initial state (the problem) is connected to an end state (the goal) through a series of mental operations.
Mental set: the tendency to solve new problems by following already-tried steps; helpful when relevant, but it can create rigidity that blocks new strategies.
Functional fixedness: failure to solve a problem because one is fixed on an object’s usual function (e.g. not seeing that a hardbound book can hammer a nail).
Reasoning: the process of gathering and analysing information to arrive at conclusions — a goal-directed form of problem solving.
Deductive reasoning: reasoning from a general assumption to a specific conclusion (general → particular).
Inductive reasoning: drawing a general conclusion from particular facts and observations (particular → general); most scientific reasoning is inductive.
Analogy: reasoning of the form “A is to B as C is to D”, where the relation between the first pair matches that between the second.
Judgment & decision-making: in judgment we draw conclusions and form opinions; in decision-making we choose among already-known alternatives by weighing cost and benefit. They are interrelated.
Convergent vs divergent thinking (Guilford): convergent thinking seeks the single correct answer; divergent thinking is open-ended, producing many possible answers. Divergent abilities are fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration.
Brainstorming & lateral thinking: Osborn’s brainstorming separates idea generation from evaluation to boost fluency; De Bono’s lateral thinking looks for alternative ways of defining problems (incl. the ‘Six Thinking Hats’).
Language: a system of symbols organised by rules to communicate; its three features are symbols, rules (syntax) and communication.
Language & thought views: Whorf’s linguistic relativity (language determines thought); Piaget (thought precedes and determines language); Vygotsky (separate origins that merge around age two).
Bilingualism / multilingualism: proficiency in two / more than two languages; in India multilingualism is a way of life and aids cognitive, linguistic and academic competence.
Review Questions — Full Solutions
All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Review Questions section. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style.
1. Explain the nature of thinking.
ANSWERThinking is the base of all cognitive activities and is unique to human beings. It is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyse information received from the environment or already stored in memory. This manipulation occurs by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging and decision-making.The chief features of thinking are:(i) It is a mental manipulation of information: while looking at a painting we go beyond the colours and strokes to interpret its meaning and relate it to existing knowledge, creating new meaning.(ii) It is organised and goal-directed: all activities, from cooking to solving a maths problem, are aimed at a goal, reached by planning and recalling or inferring steps.(iii) It is internal and inferred from behaviour: we cannot directly observe a chess player’s thoughts; we infer them from the next move.(iv) It uses building blocks: thinking relies on knowledge represented as mental images or concepts (words).
2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process.
ANSWERA concept is a mental representation of a category — a class of objects, ideas or events that share common properties. When we meet an object or event, we extract its characteristics, match it with an existing category and, if the match is good, give it that category’s name (e.g. an apple is categorised as ‘fruit’, a table as ‘furniture’, a barking quadruped as a ‘dog’).Role of concepts in thinking: concepts help us organise knowledge so that we can access it with less time and effort — just as books are arranged subject-wise in a library so we can find them quickly. By grouping similar objects and events into categories, concepts make the thought process quick and efficient, allow us to identify and respond to new instances (a new breed of dog is still a ‘dog’), and form the very base on which reasoning, problem solving and other thought processes operate.
3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving.
ANSWERTwo major obstacles to problem solving are mental set and lack of motivation; closely related to mental set is functional fixedness.(i) Mental set: the tendency to solve problems using mental operations or steps that have worked before. Prior success can speed up solving, but it also creates a rigidity that prevents the person from thinking of new rules or strategies — as when one keeps applying the same steps to maths problems until a point where they fail.(ii) Functional fixedness: failure to solve a problem because one is fixed on the usual function of a thing. Using a hardbound book to hammer a nail is an example of overcoming functional fixedness.(iii) Lack of motivation: people may have the skills to solve a problem but give up easily on facing failure at the first step. Persistence in effort is therefore necessary to reach a solution.
4. How does reasoning help in solving problems?
ANSWERReasoning is the process of gathering and analysing information to arrive at conclusions. Because it is goal-directed and aims to determine what conclusion can be drawn from given information, reasoning is itself a form of problem solving.It helps in solving problems in several ways:Deductive reasoning starts from a general assumption believed to be true and draws a specific conclusion from it (general → particular), helping us apply known rules to a particular case.Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from particular facts and observations (particular → general). Most scientific problem solving is inductive — considering many instances to find the general rule that covers them, as when one plans a play or conducts a project.Analogy (“A is to B as C is to D”) helps by transferring the relation in a familiar situation to a new one, allowing us to identify and visualise salient attributes of a problem that would otherwise go unnoticed. Thus, by inferring, generalising and drawing analogies, reasoning lets us move logically from the problem to a valid solution.
5. Are judgment and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain.
ANSWERYes, judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes. In judgment we draw conclusions, form opinions and evaluate events and objects on the basis of our knowledge and available evidence (e.g. judging a talkative, persuasive person as suitable for a salesperson’s job). In decision-making we choose among several known alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit of each (e.g. choosing between psychology and economics in Class XI).They are interrelated because good decision-making depends on sound judgment: to choose the best option we must first judge and evaluate each alternative’s likely outcomes. Inductive and deductive reasoning allow us to make judgments, and these judgments feed directly into the choices we make. Our judgments are also revised with new information (as students change their opinion of a teacher), which in turn changes our decisions. Thus, the two work together as parts of the same broad thinking process.
6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process?
ANSWERDivergent thinking is open-ended thinking in which a person generates many different answers to a question or problem instead of one correct answer. It is important in creative thinking because it is the source of novel and original ideas, which are the defining feature of creativity.Divergent thinking includes four abilities that directly serve the creative process:Fluency — producing many ideas for a task (the more ideas, the more likely some are original).Flexibility — variety in thinking, such as seeing different uses or interpretations.Originality — producing rare or unusual ideas by seeing new relationships; research shows fluency and flexibility are necessary conditions for it.Elaboration — going into details and working out the implications of new ideas.By letting the mind seek new and remote associations, divergent thinking generates a wide pool of ideas, out of which convergent thinking then selects the most useful and appropriate one. Hence both are needed, but divergent thinking is essential for generating the creative ideas in the first place.
7. How can creative thinking be enhanced?
ANSWERCreative thinking can be enhanced through certain attitudes, dispositions and skills. Key strategies are:(i) Become more aware and sensitive: notice and respond to feelings, sights, sounds and textures; spot problems, gaps, anomalies and contradictions that others miss. Cultivate wide reading, exposure to varied information and the habit of asking questions.(ii) Generate many ideas: deliberately produce as many responses, solutions and suggestions as possible to increase the flow of thought, and look at a task from multiple angles to increase flexibility (e.g. different ways to arrange furniture or to deal with an angry friend).(iii) Use brainstorming: Osborn’s brainstorming technique increases fluency and flexibility by keeping idea generation separate from evaluation — imagination is given priority over judgment until all ideas are exhausted. Checklists and questions (“What else? In how many ways could it be done? What other uses?”) give ideas a new twist.Developing creative thinking also requires overcoming blocks to creative expression, such as fear of failure and rigid mental sets, and practising both divergent thinking (to generate ideas) and convergent thinking (to select the best one).
8. Does thinking take place without language? Discuss.
ANSWERYes, in many cases thinking can take place without language, though the two are closely related. Psychologists hold three views on their relationship:(i) Language determines thought (Whorf): the linguistic relativity hypothesis holds that the language and categories we use shape what and how we can think (e.g. Indian languages have many kinship terms where English uses one word, ‘uncle’). The strong version is largely rejected; evidence suggests similar thoughts are possible in all languages, though some may be easier in one language than another.(ii) Thought determines and precedes language (Piaget): Piaget argued that children form an internal representation of the world through thinking, and that imitation (seeing something and later copying it) shows thinking without language. Understanding words requires prior knowledge of the underlying concepts, so thought is basic and necessary for language to be understood.(iii) Different origins (Vygotsky): thought and language develop separately until about age two, then merge. Before two, thought is preverbal; afterwards the child uses soundless (inner) speech, and the two become interdependent. Thought is used without language when the vehicle is non-verbal (visual or movement), and language is used without thought in expressing pleasantries (“Good morning! How are you?”).Conclusion: thinking can occur without language — especially through mental images and actions — but for higher conceptual thought, language and thought work together to produce verbal thought and rational speech.
9. How is language acquired in human beings?
ANSWERLanguage develops through a predictable sequence of stages and is acquired through both nature and nurture.Stages of language development:1. Crying: the first sound; initially undifferentiated, it gradually varies in pitch and intensity to signify hunger, pain or sleepiness.2. Cooing: around the same period, crying gives way to cooing sounds (‘aaa’, ‘uuu’) that express happiness.3. Babbling (about 6 months): prolonged repetition of consonant–vowel sounds (da—, ba—); later strings such as ‘dadadada’ (echolalia) imitate adult voices.4. One-word stage (around the first birthday): the first word, usually one syllable (ma, da); single words standing for whole phrases are called holophrases.5. Two-word stage (18–20 months): two words used together — telegraphic speech containing mostly nouns and verbs (‘got admission’). Beyond two-and-a-half years, development focuses on the rules (grammar) of the language.How it is acquired — nature and nurture: Skinner (nurture) held that language is learned through association, imitation, reinforcement and shaping. Chomsky (nature) argued that children acquire grammar too rapidly, and create sentences they have never heard, to be explained by learning alone; children are born with a ‘universal grammar’ and a critical period for learning language. Most psychologists accept that both nature and nurture are important in language acquisition.
Extra Practice Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
Q1. What are the two building blocks of thought?
ANSWERThe two building blocks of thought are mental images and concepts. A mental image is a mental representation of a sensory experience (e.g. picturing a route), while a concept is a mental representation of a category of objects, ideas or events that share common properties (e.g. ‘fruit’). People usually think by means of images or words.
Q2. Differentiate between mental set and functional fixedness.
ANSWERMental set is the tendency to solve problems by repeating steps that worked before, creating rigidity against new strategies. Functional fixedness is failing to solve a problem because one is fixed on an object’s usual function (not seeing a book as a hammer). Functional fixedness is a special, object-related case of the same rigidity.
Q3. State the four stages of the creative process.
ANSWERThe four stages are: Preparation (understanding and analysing the problem); Incubation (leaving the problem aside, when ideas may quietly form); Illumination (the sudden ‘Aha!’ or ‘I have found it’ moment); and Verification (testing and judging the worth of the idea, where convergent thinking selects the workable solution).
Q4. What is meant by linguistic relativity hypothesis?
ANSWERProposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf, the linguistic relativity hypothesis holds that language determines the contents of thought — the words and categories available in a language shape what and how its speakers can think. Its strong version (linguistic determinism) is largely rejected, as the same quality of thought is possible across languages.
Q5. What are the three basic characteristics of language?
ANSWERLanguage has three basic characteristics: (i) the presence of symbols that represent objects or events (e.g. ‘home’, ‘food’); (ii) a set of rules (syntax) to organise these symbols in an accepted order; and (iii) communication of one’s thoughts, ideas and feelings to others, which may also be non-verbal (gestures, sign language).
Long Answer Type Questions
Q1. Describe the sequence of mental operations involved in solving a problem.
ANSWERProblem solving connects an initial state (the problem) to an end state (the goal) through a series of mental operations. Using the example of organising a play for Teachers’ Day, the sequence is: (1) Identify the problem — recognise that a play must be organised in a week. (2) Represent the problem — work out what it involves (theme, actors, money). (3) Plan the solution and set sub-goals — survey themes and consult teachers and friends, deciding on cost, duration and suitability. (4) Evaluate all solutions — collect information and hold rehearsals. (5) Select one solution and execute it — compare options and pick the best. (6) Evaluate the outcome — if the play is appreciated, note the steps for future use. (7) Rethink and redefine — consider ways to plan an even better play next time. This structured sequence makes problem solving systematic and goal-directed.
Q2. Explain the three viewpoints on the relationship between thought and language.
ANSWERThere are three main viewpoints. Language determines thought (Whorf): the linguistic relativity hypothesis claims that the language and categories we use shape what we can think; Indian languages with many kinship terms versus English ‘uncle’ is a classic example. The strong version is disputed. Thought determines and precedes language (Piaget): children build an internal representation of the world through thinking; imitation shows thinking without language, and understanding words requires prior concepts, so thought is basic. Different origins (Vygotsky): thought and language develop separately until about age two, then merge; thereafter inner (soundless) speech links them so they become interdependent, producing verbal thought and rational speech. Together these views show that thought and language are distinct but deeply interrelated.
Q3. Discuss creative thinking — its nature, convergent versus divergent thinking, and how it can be enhanced.
ANSWERNature: creative thinking is distinguished by the production of novel and original ideas or solutions; besides novelty, originality, appropriateness to the context and what Bruner calls ‘effective surprise’ mark it. It is reality-oriented, constructive and socially desirable, and everyone has the potential for ‘everyday creativity’. Convergent vs divergent thinking (Guilford): convergent thinking seeks the single correct answer (e.g. the next number in 3, 6, 9 is 12), while divergent thinking is open-ended, producing many answers; its abilities are fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. Both are needed — divergent thinking generates ideas, convergent thinking selects the best. Enhancement: become more aware and sensitive to problems and gaps, generate many ideas from multiple angles to build flexibility, and use Osborn’s brainstorming, which separates idea generation from evaluation so imagination is freed; De Bono’s lateral thinking and the ‘Six Thinking Hats’ also help. Overcoming blocks such as fear of failure and rigid mental sets is essential.
MCQs & Assertion–Reason
1. Thinking is best described as a process that is:
(a) random and observable directly (b) organised, goal-directed and inferred from behaviour (c) the same as crying (d) possible only in animals
2. The two building blocks of thought are:
(a) mental images and concepts (b) crying and cooing (c) reward and punishment (d) symbols and gestures
3. A mental representation of a category of objects that share common properties is a:
For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.
A-R 1. Assertion: Thinking is an internal process that cannot be observed directly.
Reason: Thinking can be inferred from a person’s overt behaviour, such as a chess player’s next move.
A-R 2. Assertion: Concepts make the thought process quick and efficient.
Reason: Concepts help us organise knowledge so that it can be accessed with less time and effort.
A-R 3. Assertion: A mental set always helps in solving new problems.
Reason: Prior success with a strategy can create rigidity that obstructs thinking of new rules.
A-R 4. Assertion: Divergent thinking alone is sufficient for creative output.
Reason: Convergent thinking is needed to identify the most useful and appropriate idea from those generated.
A-R 5. Assertion: Both nature and nurture are important in language acquisition.
Reason: Skinner explained learning through reinforcement while Chomsky proposed an innate universal grammar.
Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(A), 3-(D), 4-(D), 5-(A).
Exam Tips & Common Mistakes
How to score full marks in this chapter
Define thinking precisely (higher mental process; organised, goal-directed, internal, inferred) and always name its two building blocks. Keep the contrasts crisp: deductive (general→particular) vs inductive (particular→general); convergent (one answer) vs divergent (many answers); mental set vs functional fixedness; judgment vs decision-making. Memorise the four divergent abilities (fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration) and the four creative stages (preparation, incubation, illumination, verification) in order. For thought-and-language questions, attach the right theorist to each view — Whorf, Piaget, Vygotsky — and quote textbook examples (the kinship terms, the ‘uncle’ example, brainstorming, the Six Thinking Hats).
Common mistakes to avoid
Reversing the directions of deductive and inductive reasoning.
Treating mental set as always harmful — it can also speed up familiar problem solving.
Confusing convergent (single correct answer) with divergent (many answers) thinking.
Forgetting that creative thinking needs both divergent and convergent thinking.
Mixing up the creative stages, especially incubation (idea forming while resting) and illumination (the ‘Aha!’ moment).
Attributing the wrong view to a theorist (e.g. crediting Piaget with linguistic relativity instead of Whorf).
Saying thinking is impossible without language — non-verbal thought (images, actions) does occur.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Chapter 7 of Class 11 Psychology about?
Chapter 7, Thinking, explains the nature of thinking and its building blocks (mental images and concepts), the processes of problem solving, reasoning and decision-making, the nature and process of creative thinking, and the relationship between thought and language along with how language develops in human beings.
What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking?
Convergent thinking, as defined by Guilford, is required to solve problems that have only one correct answer, with the mind converging on that solution. Divergent thinking is open-ended and produces many possible answers; its abilities are fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration, and it is essential for generating creative, original ideas.
What exercise does Chapter 7 of Class 11 Psychology have?
The end-of-chapter exercise in NCERT Class 11 Psychology Chapter 7 is headed Review Questions and contains 9 numbered questions, all answered step by step on this page.
