NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Geography Chapter 3: Land Resources and Agriculture (2026–27)

These Class 12 Geography Chapter 3 solutions cover Land Resources and Agriculture from India – People and Economy, the NCERT textbook for the 2026–27 session. The chapter explains the nine land-use categories in India’s land revenue records, the major land-use changes between 1950–51 and 2019–20, the concept of Common Property Resources (CPRs), cropping seasons (kharif, rabi, zaid), types of farming, the geography of important crops, the Green Revolution and the major problems of Indian agriculture. Below you get exact, verbatim NCERT exercise questions with full step-by-step answers, plus extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason questions and FAQs.

Class: 12 Subject: Geography Book: India – People and Economy Chapter: 3 Title: Land Resources and Agriculture Session: 2026–27
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Class 12 Geography Chapter 3 – Overview

Chapter 3, Land Resources and Agriculture, looks at land as a finite resource used for production, residence and recreation. It first explains the nine land-use categories maintained in the land revenue records — forests; barren and wasteland; land put to non-agricultural uses; permanent pastures and grazing land; miscellaneous tree crops and groves; culturable wasteland; current fallow; fallow other than current fallow; and net area sown. It then analyses land-use changes between 1950–51 and 2019–20, where five categories increased and four declined, and introduces Common Property Resources (CPRs), vital for the landless and for women. The second half covers cropping seasons (kharif, rabi, zaid), cropping intensity, types of farming (irrigated — protective and productive; rainfed — dryland and wetland), and the geography of foodgrains, oilseeds, fibre and other crops. Finally it traces agricultural development from the Green Revolution to liberalisation, and the major problems of Indian agriculture, from dependence on the monsoon to small, fragmented holdings.

Key Concepts & Terms

Reporting area vs geographical area: the reporting area is the total of all land-use categories in the land revenue records and may change slightly with revenue estimates; the geographical area is measured by the Survey of India and stays fixed.

Net area sown: the physical extent of land on which crops are actually sown and harvested in an agricultural year.

Gross cropped area (GCA): the total area sown once and more than once in a year — an area sown twice is counted twice. (Net area sown counts such land only once.)

Culturable wasteland vs barren wasteland: culturable wasteland is land left fallow for more than five years that can be reclaimed for cultivation; barren and wasteland (barren hills, deserts, ravines) cannot be brought under cultivation with available technology.

Current fallow vs fallow other than current fallow: current fallow is left uncultivated for one agricultural year or less to recoup fertility; fallow other than current fallow is left uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years.

Total cultivable land: net sown area + all fallow lands + culturable wasteland.

Cropping intensity (CI): CI (%) = (Gross Cropped Area ÷ Net Sown Area) × 100 — a higher value means more intensive use of land.

Common Property Resources (CPRs): community natural resources (community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies) where every member has rights of access and use with specified obligations, but no one holds property rights; vital for the landless, marginal farmers and rural women.

Cropping seasons: kharif (June–September, southwest monsoon — rice, cotton, jute, bajra, tur), rabi (October–March, winter — wheat, gram, mustard, barley) and zaid (short summer season after rabi — watermelons, vegetables, fodder).

Protective vs productive irrigation: protective irrigation supplements rainfall over the maximum possible area to protect crops from moisture deficiency; productive irrigation provides higher water input per unit area to achieve high productivity.

Dryland vs wetland farming: dryland farming (rainfall below 75 cm) grows drought-resistant crops like ragi, bajra, moong and gram with moisture conservation; wetland farming (rainfall in excess of soil-moisture need) grows water-intensive crops like rice, jute and sugarcane and may face floods.

Green Revolution: the rapid rise in foodgrain output from the mid-1960s using HYV seeds of wheat (Mexico) and rice (Philippines) with assured irrigation and chemical fertilisers, initially confined to irrigated areas such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

NCERT Exercise – Full Solutions

All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Exercises. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style. Map/figure-based answers are given in words.

1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.

(i) Which one of the following is NOT a land-use category? (a) Fallow land (b) Marginal land (c) Net Area Sown (d) Culturable Wasteland

ANSWER (b) Marginal land. The land revenue records recognise nine land-use categories — including fallow land, net area sown and culturable wasteland — but ‘marginal land’ is not one of them.

(ii) What one of the following is the main reason due to which share of forest has shown an increase in the last forty years? (a) Extensive and efficient efforts of afforestation (b) Increase in community forest land (c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth (d) Better peoples’ participation in managing forest area.

ANSWER (c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth. The land revenue records count the area officially demarcated for forest growth, not the actual forest cover. So the recorded share of forest can rise simply because more area has been notified for forests, even without a real increase in tree cover.

(iii) Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigated areas? (a) Gully erosion (b) Wind erosion (c) Salinisation of soils (d) Siltation of land

ANSWER (c) Salinisation of soils. In irrigated tracts, faulty irrigation leads to alkalisation, salinisation and waterlogging, which lowers soil fertility. Salinisation is therefore the main form of land degradation in irrigated areas.

(iv) Which one of the following crops is not cultivated under dryland farming? (a) Ragi (b) Jowar (c) Groundnut (d) Sugarcane

ANSWER (d) Sugarcane. Dryland farming (rainfall below 75 cm) grows hardy, drought-resistant crops such as ragi, jowar, bajra and groundnut. Sugarcane is a water-intensive crop of wetland/irrigated farming and is not grown under dryland conditions.

(v) In which of the following group of countries of the world, HYVs of wheat and rice were developed? (a) Japan and Australia (b) U.S.A. and Japan (c) Mexico and Philippines (d) Mexico and Singapore

ANSWER (c) Mexico and Philippines. The high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of wheat were developed in Mexico and those of rice in the Philippines; India adopted both from the mid-1960s, launching the Green Revolution.

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Differentiate between barren and wasteland and culturable wasteland.

ANSWER Barren and wasteland — barren hilly terrain, deserts and ravines — cannot be brought under cultivation with available technology. Culturable wasteland is land left fallow for more than five years that can be cultivated after reclamation.

(ii) How would you distinguish between net sown area and gross cropped area?

ANSWER Net sown area is the physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested, counted once. Gross cropped area is the total area sown, where land sown more than once in a year is counted as many times as it is cropped.

(iii) Why is the strategy of increasing cropping intensity important in a country like India?

ANSWER As land is scarce but labour is abundant in India, raising cropping intensity gives fuller utilisation of limited land, increases total output and the demand for labour, and thus helps reduce rural unemployment.

(iv) How do you measure total cultivable land?

ANSWER Total cultivable land is estimated by adding up the net sown area, all the fallow lands (current fallow and fallow other than current fallow) and culturable wasteland.

(v) What is the difference between dryland and wetland farming?

ANSWER Dryland farming (rainfall below 75 cm) grows drought-resistant crops like ragi, bajra and gram with moisture conservation. Wetland farming has rainfall in excess of soil-moisture needs and grows water-intensive crops like rice, jute and sugarcane, though it may face floods.

3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

(i) What are the different types of environmental problems of land resources in India?

ANSWER Faulty strategies of irrigation and agricultural development have led to widespread degradation of land resources in India, which threatens soil fertility and long-term productivity. 1. Alkalisation, salinisation and waterlogging: the situation is especially alarming in irrigated areas, where a large tract of agricultural land has lost fertility because excess irrigation raises salts and waterlogs the soil. 2. Chemical pollution of soils: excessive use of insecticides and pesticides has caused these chemicals to accumulate in toxic amounts in the soil profile. 3. Loss of natural fertility: leguminous (nitrogen-fixing) crops have been displaced from the cropping pattern in irrigated areas, and the reduced duration of fallow under multiple cropping has obliterated natural fertilisation such as nitrogen fixation. 4. Soil erosion: rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropics experience degradation such as soil erosion by water and wind, gully erosion and ravines, often induced by human activities. Together these reduce the productive capacity of India’s land.

(ii) What are the important strategies for agricultural development followed in the post-independence period in India?

ANSWER After Independence the immediate goal was to raise foodgrain output. Several strategies were followed in stages: 1. Initial strategy (1950s): the Government switched over from cash crops to food crops, intensified cropping over already cultivated land, and brought cultivable and fallow land under the plough. This helped initially but production stagnated by the late 1950s. 2. Intensive area programmes: the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched, but two droughts in the mid-1960s caused a food crisis. 3. Green Revolution (mid-1960s): a package technology of HYV seeds of wheat and rice, chemical fertilisers and assured irrigation was introduced in Punjab, Haryana, western U.P., Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, making the country self-reliant in foodgrains. 4. Planning for rainfed areas: in the 1980s, agro-climatic planning (1988) was introduced for regionally balanced development and diversification into dairy, poultry, horticulture, livestock and aquaculture. Liberalisation and a free-market economy from the 1990s further shaped agriculture.

Extra Practice Questions

Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. What is the difference between reporting area and geographical area?

ANSWERReporting area is the sum of all land-use categories in the land revenue records and may change slightly with revenue estimates. Geographical area is measured by the Survey of India and stays fixed. The two differ because they are estimated by different methods.

Q2. What are Common Property Resources (CPRs)? Why are they important for women?

ANSWERCPRs are community natural resources — community forests, pasture lands and village water bodies — where every member has rights of access and use without property rights. They are important for women because most fodder and fuel collection in rural areas is done by them, often from degraded CPRs.

Q3. Why is the scope for increasing net sown area in India limited?

ANSWERMost cultivable land is already under the plough, wastelands have shrunk, and land is being diverted to non-agricultural uses around cities. Hence there is little fresh land left, and India must instead adopt land-saving technologies that raise yield and cropping intensity.

Q4. Name the three cropping seasons of India with one example crop each.

ANSWERThe three cropping seasons are kharif (June–September, e.g. rice), rabi (October–March, e.g. wheat) and zaid (short summer after rabi, e.g. watermelon/fodder). This distinction does not exist in the far south, where high temperatures allow cropping throughout the year.

Q5. What is the difference between protective and productive irrigation?

ANSWERProtective irrigation supplements rainfall to protect crops from moisture deficiency, spreading water over the maximum possible area. Productive irrigation provides a higher water input per unit area to ensure sufficient soil moisture and achieve high productivity.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Explain the land-use changes that took place in India between 1950–51 and 2019–20.

ANSWERSince the reporting area has stayed nearly constant, a decline in one land-use category leads to an increase in another. Between 1950–51 and 2019–20, five categories increased — area under forest, non-agricultural uses, permanent pasture and grazing land, current fallow and net area sown — while four declined — barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under tree crops and groves, and fallow other than current fallow. The highest rate of increase was in land put to non-agricultural uses, due to the changing structure of the economy, expansion of industry, services, infrastructure and settlements, which grew at the expense of wastelands and agricultural land. The rise in forest area reflects more demarcated forest rather than real forest cover. Current fallow fluctuates with rainfall and cropping cycles, while net area sown increased recently as culturable waste was reclaimed. The decline in wastelands and tree crops reflects the growing pressure on land from both agriculture and non-agricultural sectors.

Q2. Describe the geographical distribution and conditions of cultivation of rice and wheat in India.

ANSWERRice is a staple food and a crop of tropical humid areas, grown from sea level up to about 2,000 m, from humid eastern India to the irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. and northern Rajasthan. It is grown as a kharif crop in the north and two to three crops a year in the south and West Bengal. India ranks second in the world (after China); West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab are leading producers, with high yields in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh where it is irrigated. Wheat is the second most important cereal and a crop of the temperate zone, grown in the rabi (winter) season, mostly under irrigation. About 85% of its area lies in the north and central regions — the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan are leading producers, with very high yields (above 4,000 kg/ha) in Punjab and Haryana.

Q3. Discuss the major problems faced by Indian agriculture.

ANSWERIndian agriculture faces several region-specific and common problems. Dependence on erratic monsoon: irrigation covers only about a third of cultivated land, so most farming depends on an unreliable monsoon, exposing it to droughts and floods. Low productivity: per-hectare yields of rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds are far below international levels, and labour productivity is low due to heavy pressure on land. Constraints of finance and indebtedness: costly modern inputs force small and marginal farmers into debt from moneylenders, and crop failures trap them in indebtedness. Lack of land reforms: land reforms were poorly implemented, perpetuating inequitable landholding. Small and fragmented holdings: rising population has shrunk and fragmented holdings, making them uneconomic. Lack of commercialisation, underemployment and land degradation through salinisation, waterlogging and soil erosion further weaken Indian agriculture.

MCQs & Assertion–Reason

1. Land left without cultivation for one agricultural year or less is called:

(a) culturable wasteland    (b) current fallow    (c) barren land    (d) net area sown

2. Which authority is responsible for measuring the geographical area of administrative units in India?

(a) Land Revenue Department    (b) Survey of India    (c) Census of India    (d) Planning Commission

3. The cropping intensity is calculated as:

(a) (NSA ÷ GCA) × 100    (b) (GCA ÷ NSA) × 100    (c) (GCA − NSA) × 100    (d) (NSA + GCA) ÷ 2

4. Which one of the following is a rabi crop?

(a) Rice    (b) Cotton    (c) Jute    (d) Wheat

5. Which state grows three crops of rice known as ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’?

(a) Punjab    (b) Tamil Nadu    (c) West Bengal    (d) Kerala

6. Common Property Resources are owned by:

(a) individual farmers    (b) private companies    (c) the state/community    (d) the central government only

7. Tea plantation in India started in the 1840s in the:

(a) Nilgiri Hills    (b) Brahmaputra valley of Assam    (c) Western Ghats    (d) Darjeeling hills

8. Which state alone produces more than half of the total jowar production of the country?

(a) Karnataka    (b) Madhya Pradesh    (c) Maharashtra    (d) Andhra Pradesh

9. Approximately what percentage of cultivated area in India is covered by irrigation?

(a) 33 per cent    (b) 50 per cent    (c) 66 per cent    (d) 80 per cent

10. The Green Revolution in India was initially confined to:

(a) rainfed eastern regions    (b) irrigated areas like Punjab and Haryana    (c) the entire country    (d) the Deccan plateau

Answer key: 1-(b), 2-(b), 3-(b), 4-(d), 5-(c), 6-(c), 7-(b), 8-(c), 9-(a), 10-(b).

For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.

A-R 1. Assertion: The recorded area under forest can increase without any increase in actual forest cover.

Reason: Land revenue records count the area demarcated for forest growth, not the actual forest cover.

A-R 2. Assertion: Sugarcane is a typical crop of dryland farming.

Reason: Dryland farming is practised where annual rainfall is less than 75 cm.

A-R 3. Assertion: A high cropping intensity is desirable for India.

Reason: India is land-scarce but labour-abundant, so intensive land use raises output and reduces rural unemployment.

A-R 4. Assertion: Salinisation and waterlogging are serious problems in irrigated areas.

Reason: Faulty irrigation strategies raise salts and waterlog the soil, lowering its fertility.

A-R 5. Assertion: The Green Revolution caused regional disparities in agricultural development until the 1970s.

Reason: The new technology was initially confined to irrigated areas before spreading to the eastern and central parts of the country.

Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(A), 4-(A), 5-(A).

Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

How to score full marks in this chapter

Memorise the nine land-use categories in order and be able to define each precisely — especially the pairs that examiners contrast (barren vs culturable wasteland; current fallow vs fallow other than current fallow; net sown area vs gross cropped area). Learn the cropping-intensity formula (GCA ÷ NSA × 100) and which five categories rose and four fell between 1950–51 and 2019–20. For crop questions, give season (kharif/rabi/zaid), climatic conditions and leading producer states. Use the chapter’s own examples — CPRs, the HYV package, IADP/IAAP, agro-climatic planning — to show depth.

Common mistakes to avoid

  • Confusing reporting area (changes slightly) with geographical area (fixed by Survey of India).
  • Mixing up net sown area (counted once) with gross cropped area (multi-cropped land counted each time).
  • Treating “increase in forest area” as a real rise in tree cover — it is only the demarcated area.
  • Calling sugarcane or rice a dryland crop — both are water-intensive wetland/irrigated crops.
  • Swapping the seasons of crops (e.g. wheat is rabi, not kharif).
  • Forgetting that HYV wheat came from Mexico and HYV rice from the Philippines.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Chapter 3 of Class 12 Geography (India – People and Economy) about?

Chapter 3, Land Resources and Agriculture, explains the nine land-use categories in India’s land revenue records, the land-use changes between 1950–51 and 2019–20, Common Property Resources, cropping seasons, types of farming, the geography of major crops, the Green Revolution and the problems of Indian agriculture.

What is the difference between net sown area and gross cropped area?

Net sown area is the land on which crops are sown and harvested, counted only once. Gross cropped area is the total area sown, where land cropped more than once in a year is counted each time it is cropped.

How is total cultivable land measured in India?

Total cultivable land is obtained by adding up the net sown area, all fallow lands (current fallow and fallow other than current fallow) and culturable wasteland.

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