NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2: Contemporary Centres of Power (NCERT 2026–27)
These Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 solutions cover Contemporary Centres of Power from the textbook Contemporary World Politics (Book I). After the end of the bipolar order in the early 1990s, alternative centres of political and economic power began to limit American dominance. This chapter studies three such alternatives — the European Union (EU), the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the rise of the Chinese economy — along with India–China relations and the growing role of Japan and South Korea. Below you get the complete NCERT exercise solved verbatim, key concepts, extra practice, 10 MCQs, Assertion–Reason questions and FAQs, all written in CBSE exam-ready style for the 2026–27 session.
Class: 12Subject: Political ScienceBook: Contemporary World PoliticsChapter: 2Title: Contemporary Centres of PowerSession: 2026–27
With the collapse of the Soviet bloc, the world moved towards a unipolar order dominated by the United States — but several alternative centres of power emerged to balance it. In Europe, post-war integration aided by the Marshall Plan and the Cold War evolved step by step from the European Coal and Steel Community (1951) through the European Economic Community (1957) into the European Union (1992), a supranational body with its own flag, anthem, currency (the euro) and growing political, diplomatic, economic and military influence. In Southeast Asia, five countries founded ASEAN in 1967 through the Bangkok Declaration; following the informal, cooperative ‘ASEAN Way’, it built an ASEAN Community on three pillars (Security, Economic and Socio-Cultural) and a Free Trade Area. The third centre is the dramatic rise of the Chinese economy after Deng Xiaoping’s ‘open door’ reforms of 1978, with Special Economic Zones and WTO accession (2001) making China a global economic power. The chapter also traces India–China relations — from the 1962 conflict to growing trade and continuing border tensions — and the role of Japan and South Korea as Asian centres of power.
Key Concepts & Terms
Alternative centres of power: regional groupings and states (the EU, ASEAN, China, Japan, South Korea) that emerged after the end of bipolarity to limit the dominance of the United States in world politics.
European Union (EU): established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992; it has evolved from an economic union into an increasingly political one with its own flag, anthem, founding date and currency, acting more and more like a nation-state.
Marshall Plan: the American programme of massive financial aid that revived Europe’s economy after the Second World War; it influenced the establishment of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948.
The euro: the common single currency introduced in 12 EU members in 2002; its share of world trade can pose a challenge to the dominance of the US dollar.
Schengen Agreement: a 1985 agreement that abolished border controls among member states, so that a single visa allows entry into most EU countries.
ASEAN: the Association of South East Asian Nations, established in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand through the Bangkok Declaration to accelerate economic growth, social progress and regional peace.
The ‘ASEAN Way’: a form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative, with deep respect for national sovereignty and no desire for supranational structures.
ASEAN Community (2003): built on three pillars — the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): established in 1994, it carries out the coordination of security and foreign policy among members and dialogue partners.
‘Open door’ policy: the economic reform announced by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to raise productivity by inviting capital and technology from abroad; China opened step by step rather than through ‘shock therapy’.
Special Economic Zones (SEZs): zones where trade barriers were removed and foreign investors could set up enterprises, leading to a phenomenal rise in China’s foreign trade and FDI.
Other key terms:Look East / Act East Policy (India’s policy since the early 1990s and 2014 of greater economic interaction with East Asian nations), ‘Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai’ (the early slogan of India–China friendship), and supranational organisation (a body to which member states surrender some sovereignty).
NCERT Exercises — Full Solutions
All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Exercises section. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style.
1. Arrange the following in chronological order.
a. China’s accession to WTOb. Establishment of the EECc. Establishment of the EUd. Birth of ARF
ANSWERThe correct chronological order (earliest first) is:(i) b. Establishment of the EEC — 1957(ii) c. Establishment of the EU — 1992(iii) d. Birth of ARF — 1994(iv) a. China’s accession to WTO — 2001So the order is b, c, d, a.
2. The ‘ASEAN Way’
a. Reflects the life style of ASEAN membersb. A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal and cooperativec. The defence policy followed by the ASEAN membersd. The road that connects all the ASEAN members
ANSWERThe correct option is (b) A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal and cooperative.The ‘ASEAN Way’ describes the distinctive style of interaction that is informal, non-confrontationist and cooperative, and that gives critical importance to respect for national sovereignty.
3. Which of the following nations adopted an ‘open door’ policy?
a. Chinab. South Koreac. Japand. USA
ANSWERThe correct option is (a) China.The ‘open door’ policy and economic reforms were announced by the then leader Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to generate higher productivity by attracting investments of capital and technology from abroad.
4. Fill in the blanks:
a. The border conflict between China and India in 1962 was principally over ______________ and __________________ region.b. ARF was established in the year ______________________ .c. China entered into bilateral relations with __________ (a major country) in 1972.d. ________________ Plan influenced the establishment of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948.e. ___________ is the organisation of ASEAN that deals with security.
ANSWERa. The border conflict between China and India in 1962 was principally over Arunachal Pradesh and the Aksai Chin (Ladakh) region.b. ARF was established in the year 1994.c. China entered into bilateral relations with the United States of America (USA) in 1972.d. The Marshall Plan influenced the establishment of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948.e. The ASEAN Security Community is the organisation of ASEAN that deals with security. (The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is also accepted, as it carries out the coordination of security and foreign policy.)
5. What are the objectives of establishing regional organisations?
ANSWERRegional organisations are formed to allow neighbouring countries to cooperate and gain collective strength. Their main objectives are:Economic growth and prosperity: to accelerate economic growth, create common markets and a larger production base, and promote trade, investment and social and cultural development — transforming members into prosperous economies, as the EU and ASEAN did.Peace and stability: to evolve regional solutions to historical enmities and disputes, build a more peaceful and cooperative regional order, and ensure that territorial conflicts do not escalate into armed confrontation.Collective bargaining and influence: to act as a strong bloc in international economic and political institutions (such as the WTO), so members can be more assertive in trade and diplomatic disputes than they could be individually.Cooperation in common concerns: to cooperate on trade, security, foreign policy, justice, home affairs, the environment and human development for the overall well-being of member nations.
6. How does geographical proximity influence the formation of regional organisations?
ANSWERGeographical proximity — countries being close to one another — is a major factor in forming regional organisations, for several reasons:Shared interests and problems: neighbouring countries usually share a common history, similar economic and security challenges and overlapping concerns, so it is natural for them to come together to find common solutions, as the EU did over the ‘Question of Europe’ and ASEAN did over post-colonial problems.Trade and connectivity: nearness makes trade, transport, communication and movement of people, goods and services easier and cheaper, encouraging economic integration such as a common market or free trade area.Peace and security: neighbours can either fall into conflict over disputes or build cooperation; proximity gives them a strong incentive to settle differences peacefully and ensure regional stability, as seen in the EU resolving historical enmities and ASEAN preventing territorial disputes from escalating.Thus geographical proximity provides the shared identity, common interests and practical convenience that bind neighbouring countries into a regional organisation.
7. What are the components of the ASEAN Vision 2020?
ANSWERThe ASEAN Vision 2020 defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. Its key components are:Encouraging negotiation over conflicts: it builds on the existing ASEAN policy of resolving disputes in the region through dialogue and negotiation rather than confrontation — ASEAN has, for instance, mediated the end of the Cambodian conflict and the East Timor crisis.An outward-looking, active role: ASEAN takes an active part in the wider international community and meets annually to discuss East Asian cooperation, including with major powers.Promoting peace and cooperation: the Vision aims to strengthen regional peace, security and economic cooperation, making ASEAN an attractive trading and investment partner to growing Asian economies such as India and China.
8. Name the pillars and the objectives of the ASEAN Community.
ANSWERIn 2003, ASEAN agreed to establish an ASEAN Community comprising three pillars:1. ASEAN Security Community — based on the conviction that outstanding territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontation. By 2003, member states had agreements to uphold peace, neutrality, cooperation, non-interference, and respect for national differences and sovereign rights.2. ASEAN Economic Community — its objectives are to create a common market and production base within ASEAN states, aid social and economic development in the region, improve the existing ASEAN Dispute Settlement Mechanism to resolve economic disputes, and create a Free Trade Area (FTA) for investment, labour and services.3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community — it aims to promote social progress, cultural development and a sense of shared identity and cooperation among the peoples of the region.
9. In what ways does the present Chinese economy differs from its command economy?
ANSWERThe present Chinese economy differs from its earlier command economy in several important ways:Earlier command economy: after 1949, China’s economy was based on the Soviet model. It severed links with the capitalist world, relied on its own resources, created a state-owned heavy-industries sector financed by capital from agriculture, and substituted imports with domestic goods. The state controlled all economic activity; though employment, welfare, education and health improved, growth (5–6%) was insufficient for the growing population, foreign trade was minimal and per capita income was very low.Present market economy: after Deng Xiaoping’s ‘open door’ policy and reforms of 1978, China opened up step by step (not through ‘shock therapy’). Agriculture was privatised in 1982 and industry in 1998; trade barriers were removed in Special Economic Zones where foreign investors could set up enterprises. This raised agricultural production, rural incomes and savings, generated exponential growth in rural industry, and made China the most important destination for foreign direct investment, with huge foreign-exchange reserves.Key difference: in the new economy the state still plays a central role in setting up and guiding the market, but private enterprise, foreign investment, foreign trade and SEZs now drive growth — in contrast to the closed, fully state-controlled command economy of earlier decades.
10. How did the European countries resolve their post-Second World War problem? Briefly outline the attempts that led to the formation of the European Union.
ANSWERAfter the Second World War, European leaders faced the ‘Question of Europe’ — whether Europe should revert to its old rivalries or be reconstructed on principles and institutions that would promote cooperation. They chose integration, helped by two factors.American help and the Cold War: under the Marshall Plan, America extended massive financial help to revive Europe’s economy and created NATO for collective security. The Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was set up in 1948 to channel aid, becoming a forum for cooperation on trade and economic issues, and the Council of Europe (1949) advanced political cooperation.Step-by-step economic integration: the Treaty of Paris (1951) established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC); the Treaties of Rome (1957) created the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom. This gained a political dimension with the creation of the European Parliament.Formation of the EU: the collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track. The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) established the European Union, laying the foundation for a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs, and a single currency — transforming an economic community into an increasingly political union.
11. What makes the European Union a highly influential regional organisation?
ANSWERThe European Union is highly influential because it combines economic, political, diplomatic and military power that no single member could wield alone:Economic influence: the EU’s GDP is projected to be about $19.35 trillion (2024), and its share of world trade is much larger than that of the United States, allowing it to be assertive in trade disputes with the US and China. Its currency, the euro, can challenge the dominance of the US dollar, and it is an important bloc in the WTO.Political and diplomatic influence: one EU member, France, holds a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, and the EU includes several non-permanent members; it has used diplomacy, economic investment and negotiation rather than coercion — for example, on Iran’s nuclear programme and in dialogue with China on human rights and the environment.Military influence: the EU’s combined armed forces are the second largest in the world, its defence spending is second only to the US, France has nuclear weapons, and it is the world’s second most important source of space and communications technology.Supranational character: as a supranational organisation, the EU can intervene in economic, political and social areas, giving it influence over its neighbours and in Asia and Africa — though differences among members on foreign and defence policy sometimes limit its unified action.
12. The emerging economies of China and India have great potential to challenge the unipolar world. Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your arguments.
ANSWERYes, I largely agree that the emerging economies of China and India have great potential to challenge the unipolar world dominated by the United States.China’s potential: China has been the fastest-growing economy since its reforms began in 1978 and is projected to overtake the US as the world’s largest economy by 2040. Its economic integration makes it the driver of East Asian growth, it has huge foreign-exchange reserves and FDI, and after joining the WTO (2001) it seeks to shape the future world economic order — giving it enormous regional and global influence.India’s potential: India is among the fastest-growing economies, with a large population, vast land mass, resources, strategic location and growing political influence. Through its ‘Look East’ and ‘Act East’ policies it has deepened economic ties with ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea, adding to its weight in world affairs.Together: India and China have adopted similar positions in institutions like the WTO and cooperate in areas such as bidding for energy deals abroad. As the two most populous countries with rising economies, they can collectively balance American dominance.However, certain limitations remain — unresolved border disputes, economic inequalities, dependence on the developed world for technology and markets, and internal challenges. So while their potential is great, realising it fully requires sustained growth and cooperation.
13. The Peace and prosperity of countries lay in the establishment and strengthening of regional economic organisations. Justify this statement.
ANSWERThe statement is largely justified, because regional economic organisations have proved to be powerful instruments of both peace and prosperity, as the EU and ASEAN show:They promote prosperity: by creating common markets, free trade areas and a larger production base, such organisations boost trade, investment and economic growth. The EU and ASEAN transformed their member countries into prosperous economies, and ASEAN today has some of the fastest-growing economies in the world.They promote peace: by evolving regional solutions to historical enmities and developing alternative institutions and conventions, these organisations build a more peaceful and cooperative regional order. The EU resolved centuries-old European rivalries, and ASEAN’s agreements ensure that territorial disputes do not escalate into armed confrontation; ASEAN even mediated the Cambodian and East Timor conflicts.Mutual reinforcement: economic interdependence makes war costly and cooperation rewarding, so prosperity strengthens peace and peace enables further prosperity. Collective strength also lets members bargain better in global forums like the WTO.Thus the establishment and strengthening of regional economic organisations is indeed a sound path to lasting peace and prosperity for member nations.
14. Identify the contentious issues between China and India. How could these be resolved for greater cooperation? Give your suggestions.
ANSWERContentious issues between China and India:1. The unresolved border dispute, especially over Arunachal Pradesh and the Aksai Chin region of Ladakh, which led to the 1962 war and continues to cause periodic tension.2. China’s close ties with Pakistan — including the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor and its support to Pakistan, and its perceived role in Pakistan’s nuclear programme.3. China’s military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar, viewed as hostile to Indian interests in South Asia.4. China’s opposition in the UN to India’s moves to counter terrorism, and broader strategic rivalry over influence in Asia.Suggestions for resolution and cooperation:• Continue the talks to resolve the boundary question without interruption, and increase military-to-military cooperation and confidence-building measures to maintain ‘peace and tranquillity’ on the border.• Strengthen economic ties and trade, sign agreements on cultural and scientific exchanges, and cooperate in areas of common interest such as bidding for energy deals abroad and acting together in global economic institutions like the WTO.• Increase the frequency of high-level visits and improve transportation and communication links so that both sides grow more familiar with each other and build mutual trust.• Focus on common interests and global concerns rather than disputes, since both are rising powers and the two most populous countries in the world; this can build a more positive and sound relationship.
Extra Practice Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
Q1. What was the Marshall Plan and why was it significant for Europe?
ANSWERThe Marshall Plan was the American programme under which the US extended massive financial help to revive Europe’s economy after the Second World War. It was significant because it aided post-war recovery, led to the creation of the OEEC (1948) for economic cooperation, and set Europe on the path of integration that eventually produced the European Union.
Q2. Why is ASEAN principally described as an economic association?
ANSWERASEAN was and remains principally an economic association because its primary objectives were to accelerate economic growth, create a common market and production base, and promote a Free Trade Area for investment, labour and services. Although the ASEAN region is smaller than the US, EU or Japan, its economy is growing much faster, which accounts for its rising influence.
Q3. What is the significance of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in China’s growth?
ANSWERIn China’s SEZs, trade barriers were eliminated and foreign investors could set up enterprises. This led to a phenomenal rise in foreign trade and made China the most important destination for foreign direct investment in the world, building up the large foreign-exchange reserves that now allow it to invest in other countries.
Q4. How have India’s ‘Look East’ and ‘Act East’ policies shaped its relations with East Asia?
ANSWERIndia’s ‘Look East’ Policy since the early 1990s and ‘Act East’ Policy since 2014 have led to greater economic interaction with East Asian nations — ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea. India signed trade agreements with Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, and the ASEAN–India FTA came into effect in 2010, correcting earlier neglect of ASEAN.
Q5. Why does France give the European Union added influence in global affairs?
ANSWERFrance, an EU member, holds a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and also possesses nuclear weapons. This allows the EU to influence some US policies, such as on Iran’s nuclear programme, and adds significantly to the Union’s diplomatic and military weight in international affairs.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q1. Trace the evolution of the European Union from an economic community to an increasingly political organisation.
ANSWERAfter the Second World War, European leaders chose integration over rivalry. Aided by the Marshall Plan and the Cold War, the OEEC (1948) and the Council of Europe (1949) began economic and political cooperation. The Treaty of Paris (1951) created the European Coal and Steel Community, and the Treaties of Rome (1957) established the European Economic Community and Euratom, giving integration a political dimension through the European Parliament. The collapse of the Soviet bloc accelerated the process, and the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) established the European Union, with a common foreign and security policy, cooperation on justice and home affairs, and a single currency, the euro (introduced 2002). Over time the EU has acted more like a nation-state, with its own flag, anthem, founding date and currency, and some form of common foreign and security policy. Though attempts to adopt a common constitution failed and Britain later exited (Brexit, 2016), the EU has clearly evolved from a purely economic community into an increasingly political union with global influence.
Q2. Discuss the rise of the Chinese economy and the policy decisions that made it possible.
ANSWERChina’s economic success since 1978 has been linked to its rise as a great power. After 1949, its economy followed the closed, state-controlled Soviet model, which built an industrial base and ensured welfare but could not keep pace with a growing population, leaving trade minimal and per capita income low. Major policy decisions changed this. China ended its isolation by establishing relations with the United States in 1972; Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the ‘four modernisations’ in 1973; and by 1978 Deng Xiaoping announced the ‘open door’ policy and economic reforms to attract foreign capital and technology. China opened step by step rather than through ‘shock therapy’: agriculture was privatised in 1982 and industry in 1998, and trade barriers were removed in Special Economic Zones. The result was a remarkable rise in agricultural production, rural incomes, savings, rural industry, foreign trade and FDI. Accession to the WTO in 2001 deepened its integration into the world economy. Although unemployment, inequality, environmental degradation and corruption have risen, China has become a global economic power to reckon with, projected to overtake the US by 2040.
Q3. Examine the evolution of India–China relations from conflict to growing cooperation, noting the issues that remain.
ANSWERIndia and China were great powers in Asia before Western imperialism, but their spheres of influence rarely overlapped, so they had limited interaction. After independence, there was early hope of friendship, captured in the slogan ‘Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai’, but differences over the Chinese takeover of Tibet (1950) and the boundary led to the 1962 border war over Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin, in which India suffered reverses; diplomatic relations were downgraded until 1976. From the late 1970s China’s policy became more pragmatic, border talks began in 1981, and Rajiv Gandhi’s 1988 visit gave fresh impetus. Since the end of the Cold War, relations have acquired both strategic and economic dimensions: bilateral trade rose from $338 million in 1992 to more than $84 billion in 2017, border posts opened, and both adopted similar policies in the WTO and cooperated on energy deals. However, contentious issues remain — the unresolved border dispute, the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor, China’s support to Pakistan in the UN against India’s anti-terror moves, and its military ties with Bangladesh and Myanmar — which have recently caused a downslide. Continuing boundary talks, growing trade, frequent high-level visits and a focus on common global concerns can help build a more positive relationship between the two most populous nations.
MCQs & Assertion–Reason
1. The European Union was established by which treaty in 1992?
(a) Treaty of Paris (b) Treaty of Maastricht (c) Treaties of Rome (d) Lisbon Treaty
2. ASEAN was established in 1967 through the signing of the:
(a) Bangkok Declaration (b) Bandung Declaration (c) Schengen Agreement (d) Treaty of Paris
3. Which of the following was a founding member of ASEAN in 1967?
(a) Vietnam (b) Myanmar (c) Indonesia (d) Cambodia
4. The three pillars of the ASEAN Community are Security, Economic and:
For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.
A-R 1. Assertion: The European Union acts increasingly like a nation-state.
Reason: It has its own flag, anthem, founding date, currency and some form of common foreign and security policy.
A-R 2. Assertion: There is little desire in ASEAN for supranational structures and institutions.
Reason: ASEAN follows the ‘ASEAN Way’ of informal, cooperative interaction with deep respect for national sovereignty.
A-R 3. Assertion: China opened its economy gradually rather than through ‘shock therapy’.
Reason: China privatised agriculture in 1982 and industry in 1998 and removed trade barriers only in Special Economic Zones.
A-R 4. Assertion: India–China relations improved steadily after the 1962 war with no setbacks.
Reason: Border disputes, the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor and China’s support to Pakistan in the UN have recently caused a downslide.
A-R 5. Assertion: The European Union is an important bloc in international economic organisations.
Reason: Its share of world trade is much larger than that of the United States, making it assertive in trade disputes.
Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(A), 3-(A), 4-(D), 5-(A).
Exam Tips & Common Mistakes
How to score full marks in this chapter
Memorise the timeline of European integration (ECSC 1951 → EEC 1957 → EU/Maastricht 1992 → euro 2002) and the key ASEAN dates (founding 1967, ARF 1994, ASEAN Community 2003). For comparison questions, give a clear two-sided structure — for example, China’s command economy vs its present market economy. When asked about the EU’s or ASEAN’s strength, organise your answer under headings (economic, political/diplomatic, military). Always anchor answers in the chapter’s facts: the Marshall Plan, the three ASEAN pillars, Deng Xiaoping’s ‘open door’ policy, SEZs, WTO accession (2001), the 1962 war and India’s Look East/Act East policy.
Common mistakes to avoid
Confusing the dates of the EEC (1957) and the EU (1992), or mixing up the Treaty of Rome with the Treaty of Maastricht.
Listing the wrong founding members of ASEAN — only Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand founded it in 1967; Vietnam, Myanmar and Cambodia joined later.
Saying China followed ‘shock therapy’ — it actually opened step by step.
Forgetting that the 1962 conflict was over both Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin (Ladakh).
Describing ASEAN as a supranational body like the EU — ASEAN deliberately avoids supranational structures.
Writing only economic points for the EU’s influence and ignoring its political, diplomatic and military dimensions.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Chapter 2 of Class 12 Political Science (Contemporary World Politics) about?
Chapter 2, Contemporary Centres of Power, studies the alternative centres of power that emerged after the end of bipolarity to limit US dominance — chiefly the European Union and ASEAN as regional organisations and the rise of the Chinese economy — along with India–China relations and the role of Japan and South Korea.
In what order should China’s WTO accession, the EEC, the EU and the ARF be arranged?
The chronological order is: Establishment of the EEC (1957), Establishment of the EU (1992), Birth of the ARF (1994), and China’s accession to the WTO (2001) — that is, b, c, d, a.
What are the three pillars of the ASEAN Community?
The ASEAN Community, agreed in 2003, rests on three pillars: the ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community, aimed respectively at preventing armed conflict, building a common market, and promoting social and cultural cooperation.
