NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 4: Change and Development in Rural Society
These Class 12 Sociology Chapter 4 solutions cover Change and Development in Rural Society from Social Change and Development in India (Book 2), updated for the NCERT 2026–27 session. The chapter explores India’s agrarian structure — the link between caste and class in the countryside — the impact of land reforms, the social consequences of the Green Revolution, the post-Independence transformation of rural society, the circulation of labour, and the effects of globalisation and liberalisation on agriculture, including farmers’ suicides. Below you get every NCERT exercise question reproduced verbatim and answered in exam-ready style, plus key concepts, extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason questions and FAQs.
Class: 12Subject: SociologyBook: Social Change and Development in IndiaChapter: 4Title: Change and Development in Rural SocietySession: 2026–27
India is primarily a rural society — the majority of its people live in villages and depend on agriculture, which is not merely a livelihood but a way of life closely tied to culture (harvest festivals such as Pongal, Bihu, Baisakhi and Ugadi). The chapter examines the agrarian structure, that is, the highly unequal distribution of landholdings, and shows how access to land shapes the rural class structure and overlaps with the caste system, giving rise to M.N. Srinivas’s idea of the dominant caste. It traces the colonial roots of this structure (zamindari and raiyatwari systems) and the land reforms of independent India — abolition of zamindari, tenancy reforms and land ceiling acts — which were only partly successful. It then analyses the Green Revolution and its contradictory social consequences (rising productivity but growing differentiation and inequality), the shift from ‘patronage to exploitation’ in labour relations, the large-scale circulation of migrant labour and the feminisation of agriculture, and finally the impact of globalisation and liberalisation — contract farming, agrarian distress and farmers’ suicides.
Key Concepts & Terms
Agrarian structure: the structure or distribution of landholding in rural society. Because land is the most important productive resource, access to land shapes the rural class structure and determines one’s role in agricultural production.
Class structure in rural India: ranges from medium and large landowners (who earn good incomes), to owner-cultivators, to tenants (who lease land and pay 50–75% of the crop as rent), to agricultural labourers (mostly daily-wage workers, often paid below the statutory minimum wage and suffering underemployment).
Dominant caste: a term coined by sociologist M.N. Srinivas for a caste group that is numerically large and owns the most land in a region, making it the most powerful group economically and politically. Examples: Jats and Rajputs (U.P.), Vokkaligas and Lingayats (Karnataka), Kammas and Reddis (Andhra Pradesh), Jat Sikhs (Punjab).
Begar: the practice of free or unpaid labour, in which members of low-ranked caste groups had to work for the village landlord or zamindar for a fixed number of days a year; now legally abolished but still found in places.
Zamindari & raiyatwari systems: colonial land-revenue systems. Under zamindari, the British collected revenue through intermediary landlords (zamindars), which led to agricultural stagnation. Under raiyatwari, the government dealt directly with the cultivator (raiyat), reducing the tax burden and making such areas relatively more productive.
Land reforms: a series of laws (1950s–1970s) including (i) abolition of the zamindari system (the most effective), (ii) tenancy abolition and regulation acts, and (iii) land ceiling acts (an upper limit on land a family may own). Implementation was uneven; many landowners used loopholes and benami transfers to escape ceilings.
Green Revolution: a government programme of agricultural modernisation (1960s–1970s) based on high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, pesticides, fertilisers and assured irrigation, targeted at wheat and rice regions such as Punjab, western U.P., coastal Andhra and parts of Tamil Nadu. It made India self-sufficient in foodgrains but had negative social and environmental effects.
Differentiation: the process, set off by the Green Revolution, in which the rich grew richer while many of the poor stagnated or grew poorer — widening inequalities in rural society.
From patronage to exploitation: sociologist Jan Breman’s description of how the relationship between landlords and labourers shifted from traditional, hereditary, patron–client bonds to impersonal, commercial relations using ‘free’ wage labour — a sign of the transition to capitalist agriculture.
Circulation of labour & ‘footloose labour’: the seasonal migration of workers between home villages and prosperous farming regions; Breman’s term ‘footloose labour’ for migrant workers who, despite moving, have few rights and are easily exploited.
Feminisation of agricultural labour: as men migrate out for work, cultivation increasingly becomes a female task and women emerge as the main source of agricultural labour — though they earn lower wages and are largely excluded from land ownership.
Liberalisation, WTO & contract farming: the post-1980s opening of Indian markets exposed farmers to global competition; under contract farming, companies (e.g. PepsiCo) supply inputs and buy produce at a fixed price — offering security but also dependence, diversion of land from food crops and ecological strain.
Agrarian distress & farmers’ suicides: the wave of farmers’ suicides since 1997–98, linked to changing cropping patterns, high-cost inputs, withdrawal of state support, unstable markets and heavy debt.
NCERT Exercise — Full Solutions
All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Questions section. Answers are original, written in CBSE exam-ready style.
1. Read the passage given and answer the questions:
The harsh working conditions suffered by labourers in Aghanbigha were an outcome of the combined effect of the economic power of the maliks as a class and their overwhelming power as members of a dominant caste. A significant aspect of the social power of the maliks was their ability to secure the intervention of various arms of the state to advance their interests. Thus, political factors decisively contributed to widening the gulf between the dominant class and the underclass.
i. Why do you think the maliks were able to use the power of the state to advance their own interests?
ANSWERThe maliks were not merely rich landowners; they were also members of the dominant caste of the area, so economic power and ritual/social status were combined in their hands. This double advantage gave them a powerful position in local society.Because of their land, wealth and numerical strength, they could control votes, influence local officials, the police and other arms of the administration, and direct government schemes and decisions in their own favour. Their political connections and ability to mobilise support meant that the various arms of the state acted to protect their interests rather than those of the poor. In short, the overlap of class power and dominant-caste power allowed the maliks to bend state machinery to advance their own interests and keep the labourers subordinate.
ii. Why did labourers have harsh working conditions?
ANSWERThe labourers were largely landless workers belonging to the lower castes, so they were dependent on the maliks both economically (for wages and work) and socially. Having no land or property of their own, they had little bargaining power and were forced to accept whatever terms the landowners imposed.The maliks’ combined economic and dominant-caste power, backed by their influence over the state, meant the workers could not resist exploitation. They were paid low wages (often below the statutory minimum), suffered insecure, daily-wage employment and underemployment, and were sometimes tied in hereditary or bonded relationships. The widening gulf between the dominant class and the underclass therefore translated, on the ground, into harsh, exploitative working conditions for the labourers.
2. What measures do you think the government has taken, or should take, to protect the rights of landless agricultural labourers and migrant workers?
ANSWERMeasures already taken: the government has carried out land reforms (zamindari abolition, tenancy acts and land ceiling acts) intended to redistribute surplus land to landless and SC/ST families; fixed statutory minimum wages for agricultural labour; legally abolished bonded labour and begar (free labour); and launched welfare and employment schemes such as rural development programmes, the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana, and schemes for credit and crop security.Measures that should be taken: implement land reforms more effectively so that the poor actually receive land; strictly enforce minimum-wage laws and ensure regular, secure employment (for example through guaranteed-employment schemes); register migrant workers and extend social security, identity, health care, housing and education for their children to them at their destinations; protect them against exploitation by contractors and mukadams; provide skill training, fair recruitment and grievance-redressal mechanisms; and strengthen the bargaining power of labourers through cooperatives and unions. The key is honest implementation of existing laws together with social security tailored to mobile, informal workers.
3. There are direct linkages between the situation of agricultural workers and their lack of upward socio-economic mobility. Name some of them.
ANSWERSeveral interlinked factors trap agricultural workers and block their upward mobility:(i) Landlessness: most agricultural labourers own no land — the single most important resource and form of property in rural society — so they cannot earn an independent income or build assets.(ii) Low caste status: the majority belong to SCs, STs or OBCs; the rough correspondence between caste and class means they are denied access to land, resources, power and privilege.(iii) Low and insecure wages: they are often paid below the statutory minimum wage, work only as daily-wage labourers, and face underemployment for many days of the year.(iv) Dependence on dominant landowners: hereditary or bonded labour relationships and practices like begar tie them to the landlords, leaving them little freedom to seek better opportunities.(v) Lack of education and skills: poverty prevents access to education and training, so they remain confined to low-paid manual labour with no route into better occupations. Together these factors reinforce one another and perpetuate their subordinate position.
4. What are the different factors that have enabled certain groups to transform themselves into new wealthy, entrepreneurial, dominant classes? Can you think of an example of this transformation in your state?
ANSWERFactors enabling the transformation: several developments after Independence allowed well-to-do landowning groups (usually the dominant castes) to become a new wealthy, entrepreneurial class:(i) Land reforms such as zamindari abolition strengthened the position of the actual landholding and cultivating castes. (ii) The Green Revolution and commercialisation of agriculture allowed medium and large farmers who could afford costly inputs to produce a surplus for the market and earn large profits. (iii) These farmers invested their agricultural profits in other business ventures — transport, trade, agro-industries — diversifying out of agriculture (as Rutten showed in coastal Andhra Pradesh, western U.P. and central Gujarat). (iv) The spread of higher education, especially private professional colleges, let them educate their children, who then entered white-collar professions and business. (v) This gave rise to new regional elites that became economically and politically dominant and moved into the growing towns, feeding the urban middle class.Example: answers will vary by state. A model example is the rise of the Patidars/Patels of central Gujarat, or the Kammas and Reddis of coastal Andhra Pradesh, who used Green Revolution profits to invest in business, education and politics and became dominant rural-urban classes. (Give a suitable example from your own state, such as the prosperous farming castes of Punjab or western U.P.)
5. Hindi and regional language films were often set in rural areas. Think of a film set in rural India and describe the agrarian society and culture that is shown in it. How realistic do you think the portrayal is? Have you seen any recent film set in rural areas? If not how would you explain it?
ANSWERThis is an activity-based question, so answers will vary; describe a film you have actually watched. A model answer: the classic film Mother India (and others like Do Bigha Zamin or Lagaan) is set in rural India and shows much of the agrarian society discussed in this chapter — the centrality of land, the burden of debt to the moneylender or landlord, the exploitation of poor peasants and labourers, dependence on the monsoon, and the hardship and resilience of the village family.How realistic: such films capture real features — landlessness, indebtedness, caste and class inequality, and the closeness of agriculture and culture — though they sometimes romanticise village life or simplify complex agrarian relations for drama.Recent films: fewer mainstream films are now set in villages because the industry increasingly targets urban, middle-class audiences and city or global settings; rural life is seen as less ‘glamorous’ and commercially attractive. This itself reflects the growing dominance of urban concerns in popular culture. (Mention any recent rural-themed film you have seen, such as Peepli Live or a regional film.)
6. Visit a construction site in your neighbourhood, a brickyard, or other such place where you are likely to find migrant workers. Find out where the workers come from. How are they recruited from their home villages, who is the ‘mukadam’? If they are from rural areas, find out about their lives in their villages and why they have to migrate to find work.
ANSWERThis is a field-based project, so record what you actually observe. A model answer based on the chapter: migrant workers at construction sites and brickyards usually come from drought-prone, less productive rural regions such as parts of eastern U.P., Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand, Rajasthan or Madhya Pradesh.They are typically recruited through a labour contractor or middleman called a ‘mukadam’, who goes to the home villages, advances money or wages and brings groups of workers to the worksite, often controlling their pay and conditions.In their villages most of them are landless or marginal labourers with little or no land, who face seasonal unemployment, low wages and growing inequality. They migrate because there is not enough work or income in the village for the whole year; men move out periodically in search of work and better wages, leaving women, children and the elderly behind. Migration offers higher earnings but also insecurity, hard work, poor living conditions and exploitation. (Add the specific details you gather from your own visit.)
7. Visit your local fruit-seller, and ask her/him about the fruits she/he sells, where they come from, and their prices. Find out what has happened to the prices of local products after fruits began to be imported from outside of India (such as apples from Australia). Are there any imported fruits cheaper than Indian fruits?
ANSWERThis is an enquiry-based activity, so collect the actual information from your local fruit-seller. A model answer connected to the chapter: fruit-sellers today stock both Indian fruits (such as apples from Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir, oranges, bananas and mangoes) and imported fruits (apples from Australia or Washington, kiwis, pears and other items) that were not available a few years ago because of earlier import-substitution policies.With liberalisation and the opening of Indian markets under the WTO, imported fruits now compete directly with local produce. Often imported fruits look more uniform and attractive and are sometimes priced competitively, which can push down the prices Indian farmers receive and increase their livelihood insecurity. Whether an imported fruit is actually cheaper than the Indian one varies with the season, transport costs and quality. The exercise illustrates how the globalisation of agriculture directly affects Indian farmers and rural society. (Fill in the real prices and answers you obtain.)
8. Collect information and write a report on the environmental situation in rural India. Examples of topics: pesticides; declining water table; impact of prawn farming in coastal areas; salination of soil and waterlogging in canal irrigated areas; loss of biodiversity. Possible source: State of India’s Environment Reports, Reports from Centre for Science and Development and the magazine Down to Earth.
ANSWERThis is a report-writing project; use the suggested sources (State of India’s Environment Reports, the Centre for Science and Environment, and Down to Earth). A model outline drawing on the chapter:Pesticides and fertilisers: the heavy use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers promoted during the Green Revolution has polluted soil and water, harmed human and animal health, and dissolved chemicals into groundwater.Declining water table: over-extraction of groundwater for water-intensive HYV crops (as in Punjab) has lowered the water table sharply, turning a renewable resource scarce.Salination and waterlogging: over-irrigation in canal areas has caused salinity and waterlogging, damaging fertile land.Prawn farming & loss of biodiversity: intensive prawn farming in coastal areas has damaged ecosystems and mangroves, while the shift from multi-crop systems and traditional seeds to mono-cropping and hybrid/HYV varieties has caused a loss of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. The report should conclude that modern, market-oriented cultivation, though productive, is often ecologically unsustainable, and should recommend organic and traditional methods, water harvesting and judicious input use. (Add data and case studies from your sources.)
Extra Practice Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
Q1. What is meant by ‘agrarian structure’?
ANSWERAgrarian structure refers to the structure or distribution of landholdings in rural society. Since agricultural land is the most important productive resource, access to land shapes the rural class structure and determines what role a person plays in the process of agricultural production.
Q2. Who coined the term ‘dominant caste’ and what does it mean?
ANSWERThe term ‘dominant caste’ was coined by sociologist M.N. Srinivas. It refers to a caste group that is numerically strong and owns the most land in a region, making it the most powerful group economically and politically and enabling it to dominate local society — for example the Jats, Vokkaligas, Lingayats, Kammas and Reddis.
Q3. Name the three main categories of land reform laws passed in independent India.
ANSWERThe three main categories were: (i) abolition of the zamindari system, (ii) tenancy abolition and regulation acts, and (iii) land ceiling acts (which imposed an upper limit on the land a family could own). Of these, zamindari abolition was the most effective.
Q4. What is a ‘benami transfer’?
ANSWERA benami transfer is the practice by which landowners escaped the land ceiling acts by registering surplus land in the names of relatives or fictitious persons (and sometimes even divorcing wives on paper while continuing to live with them) so that the state could not take over their excess land for redistribution.
Q5. What is meant by the ‘feminisation of agricultural labour force’?
ANSWERAs men migrate out of villages in search of work, cultivation in many poor areas has become primarily a female task, and women have emerged as the main source of agricultural labour. This is called the feminisation of the agricultural labour force. Women, however, earn lower wages than men and are largely excluded from land ownership.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q1. Discuss the social consequences of the Green Revolution in rural India.
ANSWERThe Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s was a government programme of agricultural modernisation based on HYV seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and assured irrigation, introduced mainly in wheat and rice regions such as Punjab, western U.P., coastal Andhra and parts of Tamil Nadu. It sharply raised agricultural productivity and made India self-sufficient in foodgrains for the first time in decades. However, its social consequences were contradictory. Because inputs were expensive, mainly medium and large farmers could benefit and produce a surplus for the market, while small and marginal farmers could not. This led to a process of differentiation in which the rich grew richer and many poor stagnated or grew poorer. Landowners often took back land from tenants to cultivate it directly, displacing tenant-cultivators, and machinery displaced service-caste workers, increasing rural-urban migration. The shift from payment in kind to cash and rising prices worsened the condition of many workers, although demand for labour and wages did rise in some areas. It also widened regional inequalities and, in the second phase, increased dependence on the market and mono-cropping, raising livelihood insecurity. Thus the Green Revolution boosted production but deepened social and economic inequalities.
Q2. Explain the relationship between caste and class in rural India.
ANSWERIn rural India there is a complex but not always straightforward relationship between caste and class. Access to land — the most important resource — shapes the class structure, and there is a rough correspondence between caste and class: the upper and middle castes generally have the best access to land, resources, power and privilege, while the marginal farmers and landless mostly belong to the lower castes (SCs, STs and OBCs). The major landowning groups in each region usually belong to one or two numerically strong upper or middle castes, whom M.N. Srinivas called the dominant castes (Jats, Rajputs, Vokkaligas, Lingayats, Kammas, Reddis, Jat Sikhs). The correspondence is not exact, however: the highest caste, the Brahmins, are often not major landowners and so fall outside the agrarian structure though they remain part of rural society. The former ‘untouchable’ or dalit castes were often not allowed to own land and provided most of the agricultural labour for the dominant groups. Practices like begar (free labour) and hereditary labour bonds reinforced this overlap of caste and class, concentrating power in a ‘proprietary caste’ that owned most resources and could command the labour of the poor.
Q3. How have globalisation and liberalisation affected agriculture and rural society in India?
ANSWERSince the late 1980s, India’s policy of liberalisation and its participation in the World Trade Organization (WTO) have deeply affected agriculture. The opening up of Indian markets to imports exposed farmers, after decades of state support and protected markets, to competition from the global market — imported fruits and food items now appear in local stores, and India has even imported wheat, reversing earlier self-reliance. A major feature has been contract farming, in which multinational companies (such as PepsiCo) supply seeds, inputs and capital and buy the produce at a fixed price; this gives farmers some security but also makes them dependent, diverts land from food crops to elite export items, and is often ecologically unsustainable. Multinationals have also entered as sellers of seeds, fertilisers and pesticides, replacing government agricultural extension; this has increased farmers’ dependence on costly inputs, reduced their profits, pushed many into debt and created an ecological crisis. These structural changes, together with unstable markets, falling subsidies and a shift to cash crops, have produced widespread agrarian distress and the tragic wave of farmers’ suicides since 1997–98. Government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and Kisan Credit Card aim to provide some relief.
MCQs & Assertion–Reason
1. According to the 2011 Census, roughly what percentage of India’s people live in rural areas?
(a) 49% (b) 59% (c) 69% (d) 79%
2. The term ‘dominant caste’ was coined by:
(a) Jan Breman (b) M.N. Srinivas (c) Andre Beteille (d) A.R. Vasavi
3. Which of the following was the most effective land reform measure in India?
(a) Tenancy abolition acts (b) Land ceiling acts (c) Abolition of the zamindari system (d) Bhoodan movement
4. In the raiyatwari system, land revenue was paid directly by the:
(a) zamindar (b) actual cultivator/landlord (raiyat) (c) British Crown (d) village panchayat
5. The Green Revolution of the 1960s–1970s was targeted mainly at which crops?
(a) Cotton and jute (b) Wheat and rice (c) Tea and coffee (d) Pulses and oilseeds
6. The shift from ‘patronage to exploitation’ in landlord–labourer relations was described by:
(a) M.N. Srinivas (b) Mario Rutten (c) Jan Breman (d) Bina Agarwal
7. Migrant seasonal workers were termed ‘footloose labour’ by:
(a) Daniel Thorner (b) Jan Breman (c) Akhil Gupta (d) Dharma Kumar
8. A ‘benami transfer’ was used by landowners to escape:
(a) tenancy acts (b) the land ceiling acts (c) minimum-wage laws (d) zamindari abolition
9. Under ‘contract farming’, which company is given as an example of a firm contracting farmers in Punjab and Karnataka?
(a) Reliance (b) PepsiCo (c) ITC (d) Nestle
10. The wave of farmers’ suicides linked to agrarian distress has been occurring since about:
For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.
A-R 1. Assertion: Access to land largely determines a person’s class position in rural India.
Reason: Agricultural land is the single most important productive resource and form of property in rural society.
A-R 2. Assertion: The Green Revolution reduced inequalities in rural society in its first phase.
Reason: Expensive inputs meant mainly medium and large farmers could benefit, while small and marginal farmers could not.
A-R 3. Assertion: The Brahmins always form the major landowning group in every region of India.
Reason: In most areas the dominant landowning castes are numerically strong middle or high castes such as the Jats, Vokkaligas and Reddis.
A-R 4. Assertion: Contract farming can increase insecurity for farmers.
Reason: Under contract farming, farmers become dependent on companies and land is often diverted away from food-grain production.
A-R 5. Assertion: Land ceiling acts succeeded in redistributing large amounts of surplus land to the landless.
Reason: Many landowners used loopholes and benami transfers to avoid surrendering their surplus land.
Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(D), 4-(A), 5-(D).
Exam Tips & Common Mistakes
How to score full marks in this chapter
Remember the key sociologists and their concepts — M.N. Srinivas (dominant caste), Jan Breman (‘patronage to exploitation’, ‘footloose labour’) and A.R. Vasavi (Green Revolution and agrarian distress). For the Green Revolution, always present both sides: higher productivity and self-sufficiency versus differentiation, displacement of tenants and regional inequality. Distinguish clearly between the three land reform categories and explain why ceiling acts largely failed (loopholes, benami transfers). Use the chapter’s own examples — the dominant castes, the Punjab caselet, the maliks of Aghanbigha, contract farming with PepsiCo, and farmers’ suicides — to show depth.
Common mistakes to avoid
Confusing the zamindari system (revenue through intermediaries) with the raiyatwari system (government deals directly with the cultivator).
Treating caste and class as identical — the correspondence is only rough (e.g. Brahmins are often not major landowners).
Calling the Green Revolution wholly positive or wholly negative — mention both productivity gains and rising inequality.
Forgetting that land ceiling acts were largely ineffective because of loopholes and benami transfers.
Mixing up dominant caste (numerically strong, landowning, powerful) with the ritually highest caste.
Leaving activity/project questions (Q5–Q8) blank — write a model answer linked to the chapter and add your own field observations.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Chapter 4 of Class 12 Sociology (Book 2) about?
Chapter 4, Change and Development in Rural Society, examines India’s agrarian structure and the link between caste and class, the impact of land reforms, the social consequences of the Green Revolution, the post-Independence transformation of rural society, the circulation of migrant labour and the feminisation of agriculture, and the effects of globalisation and liberalisation including contract farming and farmers’ suicides.
Who coined the term ‘dominant caste’?
The term ‘dominant caste’ was coined by the sociologist M.N. Srinivas. It refers to a numerically strong, land-owning caste group that is the most powerful, economically and politically, in a region — such as the Jats, Vokkaligas, Lingayats, Kammas and Reddis.
Why did the land ceiling acts largely fail?
The land ceiling acts, which set an upper limit on the land a family could own, proved largely toothless because landowners used numerous loopholes and ‘benami transfers’ — registering surplus land in the names of relatives or fictitious persons — to escape having their excess land taken over and redistributed.
