NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Social Science (Exploring Society) Chapter 4: New Beginnings: Cities and States (NCERT 2026–27)

These Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society Chapter 4 solutions cover New Beginnings: Cities and States from Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Part 1), the NCF-2023 textbook (2026–27 reprint). The chapter explains India’s Second Urbanisation, the rise of the janapadas and the sixteen mahājanapadas, their systems of governance (monarchies as well as early republics or gaṇas), the role of iron metallurgy and the first Indian coins, and the early varṇa–jāti system. Below you get step-by-step answers to all Questions and activities, the “Let’s explore” comparison table, clear notes on key terms, extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason and FAQs.

Class: 7 Subject: Social Science Book: Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Part 1) Chapter: 4 Theme: Tapestry of the Past Session: 2026–27
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Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society Chapter 4 – Overview

Chapter 4, New Beginnings: Cities and States, traces how urban life returned to India after the decline of the Harappan (Sindhu–Sarasvatī) civilisation — India’s ‘First Urbanisation’. For about a millennium urban life was largely absent, until a vibrant new phase, the Second Urbanisation, began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and the Indus basin. We know this from archaeological excavations and from ancient literature (late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain). As clans settled in territories called janapadas, ruled by a rājā with the help of assemblies (sabhā and samiti), some merged into sixteen large mahājanapadas such as Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Some were monarchies; others, like Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla, were gaṇas or sanghas — ‘early republics’. The age brought new technologies (especially iron metallurgy), the first punch-marked coins, new schools of thought, the varṇa–jāti system, and great trade routes (Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha) that knit the Subcontinent together by about 300–200 BCE.

Illustrative early Indian fortified town with moat, narrow gate, farming fields, potters and a bullock cart
Imagined reconstruction showing features discussed in New Beginnings: Cities and States. It is a teaching illustration, not a photograph or an exact reconstruction of a named archaeological site. Tap to view at full size.

Key Terms & Concepts

First Urbanisation: the urban phase of the Harappan / Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation, which disintegrated in the early 2nd millennium BCE; cities were abandoned or reverted to a rural lifestyle.

Second Urbanisation: the new phase of urban life that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and parts of the Indus basin, spreading across the Subcontinent — it has continued right up to today.

Janapada: a Sanskrit word meaning ‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)’, i.e. a territory where a clan has settled, led by a rājā or ruler.

Mahājanapada: a larger state formed when janapadas merged, around the 8th–7th centuries BCE; the commonest list names sixteen, from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India.

Sabhā and samiti: assemblies or councils (first mentioned in the Vedas) where clan matters were discussed; a good rājā took their advice, and some texts say an incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly.

Gaṇa / sangha (early republic): mahājanapadas such as Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla where the assembly held real power, took decisions by discussion or vote and even selected the rājā — not monarchies.

Moat: a deep, wide ditch surrounding a fort or fortified city and filled with water, used for defence; gateways were kept narrow to control movement.

Iron metallurgy: the technology of extracting and shaping iron; by the late 2nd millennium BCE iron tools were widespread, aiding large-scale agriculture and making tools and weapons for farming, crafts and armies.

Punch-marked coins: India’s first coins, made of silver, into which symbols were ‘punched’; later coins were of copper, gold and other metals, helping growing trade.

Varṇa: a four-fold concept from Vedic texts — Brahmins (knowledge and rituals), Kshatriyas (defence and warfare), Vaishyas (trade, business, agriculture) and Shudras (artisans, craftspeople, workers).

Jāti: a group or community with a specific occupation tied to livelihood, with skills passed from one generation to the next; often subdivided into sub-jātis with their own customs.

Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha: the two great trade and pilgrimage routes — the first connecting the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India, the second running from Kauśhāmbī across the Vindhyas to the south.

“Questions and activities” — Full Solutions

The four end-of-chapter questions follow NCERT p. 81. These are ClearStudy model answers, not an official answer key. Historical interpretations should distinguish evidence, inference and uncertainty.

1. Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kauṭilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today?

ANSWER In the quotation from the Arthaśhāstra, Kauṭilya advises that a kingdom should be protected by fortifying the capital and the frontier towns; that the land should be able to feed not only its own people but also outsiders during calamities; that it should be beautiful and well-endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber and elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle; that it should not depend only on rain for water; and that it should have good roads and waterways and a productive economy with a wide variety of goods. Comparison with today: Surprisingly, the basics are not very different. A modern country still needs secure borders and defence, food security and the ability to help citizens (and even neighbours) during disasters, natural resources such as minerals, forests and water, dependable water sources beyond just rainfall (dams, canals, groundwater), good roads, railways and waterways for transport, and a strong, diverse economy. The technology and scale have changed, but the priorities a good government cares about — security, resources, infrastructure and a thriving economy — remain remarkably similar.

2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?

ANSWERThe chapter links early political life with assemblies called sabhā and samiti, terms found in the Vedas. A rājā was expected to consult the assembly. Some texts suggest an incompetent ruler could be removed, but NCERT cautions that this was not necessarily an established law.The clearest example of selection given in the chapter concerns the later gaṇas or sanghas, such as Vajji and Malla: assembly members selected the rājā. In contrast, the monarchies usually had hereditary rulers.Chronology note: the exercise says “early Vedic society”, while the chapter’s detailed examples concern janapadas and mahājanapadas. Do not project one uniform electoral system onto every early Vedic community, or call these assemblies modern elections.

3. Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahājanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.

ANSWER As the chapter says, our knowledge of this period comes mainly from two kinds of sources, and a historian would use both, checking one against the other. 1. Archaeological sources — the remains dug up from ancient sites. Excavations of fortified cities (the ruins at Rājagṛiha/Rajgir, Kauśhāmbī and Śhiśhupalgarh) reveal the size of cities, their fortifications, moats and narrow gateways, street plans and public buildings. Iron tools and weapons show the spread of iron metallurgy, while punch-marked coins help us study exchange and trade; identifying a particular issuer is not always certain. Such physical evidence confirms that these urban centres really existed. 2. Literary sources — the ancient texts. Late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature is full of references to these new urban centres and the names of the mahājanapadas; ancient Tamil literature mentions the Cholas, Cheras and Pānḍyas and their kings; and texts like Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra describe how a kingdom should be governed. These texts add names, events, ideas and details of governance that objects alone cannot give. How they work together: archaeology provides material evidence about settlement, technology and daily life; inscribed objects and ritual remains may also offer clues to names or beliefs. Literature preserves names, ideas and descriptions, but its date, purpose and perspective need checking. By combining the two, a historian builds a fuller and more trustworthy picture — while remembering that the data for such remote periods is incomplete.

4. Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.

ANSWERIron technology supported farming: axes, ploughshares and other tools helped cultivate land and increase food production. More food could support larger settlements and people working outside agriculture.Surplus supported specialised work: farmers could exchange produce with craftspeople, traders and builders. Markets, transport links and coin use helped towns grow.Tools and weapons supported states: ironworkers supplied useful implements and weapons for armies and defence. The quality of a tool depended on its manufacture; iron was not automatically sharper or better in every case.Iron was an important enabling technology, not the only cause of urbanisation. Fertile land, water, labour, trade and political organisation also mattered. The chapter describes these developments across long periods, not as one sudden change everywhere.

“Let’s explore” Activities

The chapter also contains in-text “Let’s explore” activities, including a comparison table. These are reproduced and answered below.

Activity: The most powerful of these new states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match with Indian cities of today?

ANSWER Reading the map of the sixteen mahājanapadas (Fig. 4.3), the capitals of these four powerful states were:
MahājanapadaCapital (ancient)Matching modern city / region
MagadhaRājagṛihaRajgir, in Bihar
KosalaŚhrāvastīShravasti area, Uttar Pradesh
VatsaKauśhāmbīKaushambi, near Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
AvantiUjjayinīUjjain, Madhya Pradesh
These names can be connected with present-day places and archaeological sites. A surviving name or nearby modern settlement does not by itself prove uninterrupted urban occupation for 2,500 years. This answer depends on the map (Fig. 4.3); your teacher may also accept other capitals you can read from the map.

Activity: Fill up the following table with a Yes (tick) or No (cross) in each square, comparing the two phases of Indian civilisation.

ANSWER
FeatureFirst Urbanisation (Harappan)Second Urbanisation
Ganga plainsNoYes
MonasteriesNoYes
LiteratureNo deciphered literary texts available*Yes
TradeYesYes
WarfareNo clear evidence in this chapter*Yes
Copper / bronzeYesYes
IronNoYes
Why: The Harappans were based in the Indus/Sindhu region, not the Ganga plains, had no monasteries (these came with Buddhism and Jainism), and left no readable literature; they were skilled in copper and bronze but not iron, and there is little sign of warfare. The Second Urbanisation grew in the Ganga plains, had monasteries and a rich late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature, used iron alongside copper/bronze, and saw warfare between mahājanapadas. Trade was important in both phases.

*For the textbook’s Yes/No comparison, “No” in these two cells means that the chapter does not provide clear evidence. The Harappans had writing, but it remains undeciphered; this is not proof that they had no stories or literature. Limited evidence of warfare does not prove that no conflict occurred.

Activity: Why should a complex society divide itself into such groups? List other professions you expect in a complex society of the 1st millennium BCE.

ANSWER Why a complex society divides into groups: As society grows larger and more complex, no single person can do every task, so people specialise. Dividing work among groups concerned with governance, defence, religion, education, trade, town-planning, farming, crafts and the arts allows skills to be developed and passed on, makes work more efficient, and brings order and stability to society. Other professions of a 1st-millennium-BCE society: metalsmiths and blacksmiths, potters, weavers and dyers, carpenters and builders, stone-carvers and sculptors, jewellers, leather-workers, boatmen, merchants and money-handlers, physicians, scribes, teachers, soldiers, priests, dancers and musicians, farmers and cattle-herders.

Occupational specialisation can help a society function, but it does not justify hereditary inequality, exclusion or discrimination. The chapter itself points out that groups may gain unequal wealth and power.

Extra Practice Questions

These questions and MCQs are ClearStudy practice, separate from the NCERT exercise.

Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. What is meant by the ‘Second Urbanisation of India’?

ANSWERThe Second Urbanisation is the new phase of urban life that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and parts of the Indus basin, after about a thousand years without cities following the decline of the Harappan civilisation (the First Urbanisation). It gradually spread across the Subcontinent and has continued right up to today.

Q2. What does the word ‘janapada’ mean?

ANSWER‘Janapada’ is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)’ — that is, a territory where a clan has settled down. Each janapada was associated with a clan and led by a rājā or ruler.

Q3. How were the mahājanapadas formed, and how many are usually listed?

ANSWERAs trade networks expanded and connected the janapadas, some of these early states merged together by the 8th–7th centuries BCE to form bigger units called mahājanapadas. Although texts give different lists, the most frequent list names sixteen mahājanapadas, stretching from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India.

Q4. What is a moat, and why were city gateways kept narrow?

ANSWERA moat is a deep, wide ditch dug around a fort or fortified city and filled with water, to make attack difficult. The gateways through the rampart walls were deliberately kept narrow so that guards could control the movement of people and goods entering or leaving the city.

Q5. Name the four varṇas and the work expected of each.

ANSWERThe four varṇas were: Brahmins, who preserved and spread knowledge and performed rituals; Kshatriyas, who defended society and the land and engaged in warfare; Vaishyas, who increased wealth through trade, business and agriculture; and Shudras, who were the artisans, craftspeople, workers and servants.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Describe the system of governance that the janapadas and mahājanapadas evolved.

ANSWEREach janapada had an assembly or council called sabhā or samiti, where matters concerning the clan were discussed; most members were probably elders. The rājā was not expected to rule arbitrarily but to take advice from these assemblies and from his ministers, and some texts say an incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly. When the mahājanapadas arose, they expanded these basic principles into two kinds of state. Most were monarchies (like Magadha, Kosala and Avanti), where the rājā was the ultimate authority, his position was hereditary, and he collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications and kept an army. But at least two — Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla — were gaṇas or sanghas, where the assembly held real power, took decisions by discussion or vote, and even selected the rājā. Because the members chose the ruler, scholars often call these among the world’s early republics.

Q2. Explain the varṇa–jāti system and how it changed over time.

ANSWERAs Indian society grew complex, it organised itself in a two-fold system. A jāti was a community with a specific occupation closely tied to livelihood — skills in agriculture, metallurgy, commerce or a craft were passed from generation to generation, and a jāti could be further subdivided into sub-jātis with their own customs of marriage, ritual and food. Alongside it was the varṇa, a concept from Vedic texts with four divisions: Brahmins (knowledge and ritual), Kshatriyas (defence and warfare), Vaishyas (trade, business, agriculture) and Shudras (artisans and workers). In the early period the system was fairly flexible — there is evidence that individuals and communities changed occupations when circumstances such as drought demanded, and even Brahmins might turn to trade or military life. The system gave society structure and stability, but it also involved unequal status and exclusion. NCERT describes increasing rigidity over time, including under British rule; this should not be read as saying that discrimination began only in the colonial period. Experiences varied across regions and periods. (The English word ‘caste’ comes from the Portuguese casta.)

Q3. Describe the major innovations and trade routes of the age of the mahājanapadas.

ANSWERThe age of the janapadas and mahājanapadas was a time of profound change. New schools of thought — late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain — spread their teachings through travelling scholars, monks, nuns and pilgrims, and Indian art was renewed. The key technological shift was iron metallurgy: by the late 2nd millennium BCE iron tools were widespread, aiding large-scale agriculture and giving tools and weapons for farming, crafts and armies. Growing trade led to the first Indian coins — silver ‘punch-marked coins’ into which symbols were stamped, with copper, gold and other coinages developing later, usually issued by each mahājanapada but also exchanged across regions. To carry this trade, pilgrimage and military movement, great routes opened up: the Uttarapatha, linking the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India, and the Dakṣhiṇapatha, running from Kauśhāmbī across the Vindhya Range to the south, with many lateral roads reaching the eastern and western ports. By about 300–200 BCE the whole Subcontinent had become one vibrant, interconnected land, even trading with Central and Southeast Asia.

MCQs & Assertion–Reason

1. India’s ‘First Urbanisation’ is associated with which civilisation?

(a) Vedic    (b) Harappan / Sindhu–Sarasvatī    (c) Mauryan    (d) Gupta

2. The word ‘janapada’ literally means:

(a) a great king    (b) a fortified city    (c) where the people have set foot (settled)    (d) a silver coin

3. According to the more frequent list, how many mahājanapadas were there?

(a) 8    (b) 12    (c) 16    (d) 22

4. Which of these mahājanapadas was a gaṇa or sangha (early republic)?

(a) Magadha    (b) Avanti    (c) Kosala    (d) Vajji (Vṛijji)

5. The assemblies in which clan matters were discussed were called:

(a) sabhā and samiti    (b) varṇa and jāti    (c) Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha    (d) gaṇa and sangha

6. A deep, wide, water-filled ditch around a fortified city is called a:

(a) rampart    (b) moat    (c) gateway    (d) janapada

7. India’s first coins were made mainly of which metal?

(a) Gold    (b) Copper    (c) Silver    (d) Iron

8. Which technology was the major new shift of the Second Urbanisation?

(a) Bronze casting    (b) Iron metallurgy    (c) Glass-making    (d) Paper-making

9. The capital of the Magadha mahājanapada was:

(a) Ujjayinī    (b) Kauśhāmbī    (c) Rājagṛiha    (d) Śhrāvastī

10. The two great trade routes mentioned in the chapter were the:

(a) Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha    (b) sabhā and samiti    (c) varṇa and jāti    (d) Chola and Chera roads

Answer key: 1-(b), 2-(c), 3-(c), 4-(d), 5-(a), 6-(b), 7-(c), 8-(b), 9-(c), 10-(a).

For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.

A-R 1. Assertion: After the decline of the Harappan civilisation, urban life remained largely absent in India for about a thousand years.

Reason: Major Harappan urban institutions declined, while regional cultures and village life continued.

A-R 2. Assertion: Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla were monarchies ruled by a hereditary king.

Reason: In these states the assembly took major decisions by discussion or vote and even selected the rājā.

A-R 3. Assertion: The development of iron metallurgy helped urbanism grow in the 1st millennium BCE.

Reason: Iron tools made large-scale agriculture possible and gave tools and weapons for farming, crafts and armies.

A-R 4. Assertion: Historians rely on both archaeological and literary sources to study the mahājanapadas.

Reason: Excavations confirm ancient urban centres while late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain texts describe them.

A-R 5. Assertion: The varṇa–jāti system was completely rigid right from the start.

Reason: There is evidence that in early periods individuals and communities changed their occupations when circumstances demanded.

Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(A), 4-(A), 5-(D).

Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

How to write a clear answer

Be ready to define First vs Second Urbanisation and to explain the difference between a janapada and a mahājanapada. Remember the number sixteen and a few names with capitals (Magadha–Rājagṛiha, Kosala–Śhrāvastī, Vatsa–Kauśhāmbī, Avanti–Ujjayinī). For governance questions, always contrast monarchies with the gaṇas/sanghas (early republics like Vajji and Malla). Link iron metallurgy to bigger agriculture, surplus, trade and stronger armies. Use the textbook’s own examples — sabhā/samiti, punch-marked coins, the moat and narrow gateways, the Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha — to show you have studied the chapter.

Common mistakes to avoid

  • Confusing the First Urbanisation (Harappan, Indus region, no iron) with the Second Urbanisation (Ganga plains, iron).
  • Saying all mahājanapadas were monarchies — some, like Vajji and Malla, were gaṇas/sanghas (republics).
  • Mixing up varṇa (the four-fold Vedic concept) with jāti (occupation-based community).
  • Forgetting that India’s first coins were silver punch-marked coins, not gold.
  • Treating the varṇa–jāti system as rigid from the beginning — it was more flexible in early periods.
  • Giving only one type of source for Q3 — always mention both archaeological and literary sources.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Chapter 4 of Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society about?

Chapter 4, New Beginnings: Cities and States, explains India’s Second Urbanisation — the rise of the janapadas and the sixteen mahājanapadas, their systems of governance (monarchies and early republics or gaṇas), the role of iron metallurgy and the first punch-marked coins, the varṇa–jāti system, and the great trade routes that connected the Subcontinent.

What is the difference between a janapada and a mahājanapada?

A janapada was a small early state — a territory where a clan had settled, led by a rājā. As trade expanded and janapadas merged by the 8th–7th centuries BCE, larger units called mahājanapadas were formed; the most frequent list names sixteen of them, with large fortified capital cities.

What is the exercise heading for Chapter 4 of Exploring Society?

The end-of-chapter exercise in Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Part 1) Chapter 4 is headed Questions and activities and contains 4 questions, all answered step by step on this page, along with the in-text “Let’s explore” activities and comparison table.

Reviewed 10 October 2026 against NCERT Exploring Society: India and Beyond, Grade 7 Part 1, Chapter 4, pp. 67–81 (2026–27 reprint). Use Fig. 4.3 for the approximate mahājanapada boundaries; ancient boundaries were not modern state borders. Further clarification: NCERT’s account of Vajji, hosted by IIT Kanpur SATHEE, explains that assembly participation was restricted; early republics did not have universal adult voting.

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