NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Social Science (Exploring Society) Chapter 4: New Beginnings: Cities and States (NCERT 2026–27)

These Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society Chapter 4 solutions cover New Beginnings: Cities and States from Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Part 1), the new NCF-2023 textbook for the 2026–27 session. The chapter explains India’s Second Urbanisation, the rise of the janapadas and the sixteen mahājanapadas, their systems of governance (monarchies as well as early republics or gaṇas), the role of iron metallurgy and the first Indian coins, and the early varṇa–jāti system. Below you get step-by-step answers to all Questions and activities, the “Let’s explore” comparison table, clear notes on key terms, extra practice, MCQs, Assertion–Reason and FAQs.

Class: 7 Subject: Social Science Book: Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Part 1) Chapter: 4 Theme: Tapestry of the Past Session: 2026–27
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Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society Chapter 4 – Overview

Chapter 4, New Beginnings: Cities and States, traces how urban life returned to India after the decline of the Harappan (Sindhu–Sarasvatī) civilisation — India’s ‘First Urbanisation’. For about a millennium urban life was largely absent, until a vibrant new phase, the Second Urbanisation, began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and the Indus basin. We know this from archaeological excavations and from ancient literature (late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain). As clans settled in territories called janapadas, ruled by a rājā with the help of assemblies (sabhā and samiti), some merged into sixteen large mahājanapadas such as Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Some were monarchies; others, like Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla, were gaṇas or sanghas — ‘early republics’. The age brought new technologies (especially iron metallurgy), the first punch-marked coins, new schools of thought, the varṇa–jāti system, and great trade routes (Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha) that knit the Subcontinent together by about 300–200 BCE.

Key Terms & Concepts

First Urbanisation: the urban phase of the Harappan / Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation, which disintegrated in the early 2nd millennium BCE; cities were abandoned or reverted to a rural lifestyle.

Second Urbanisation: the new phase of urban life that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and parts of the Indus basin, spreading across the Subcontinent — it has continued right up to today.

Janapada: a Sanskrit word meaning ‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)’, i.e. a territory where a clan has settled, led by a rājā or ruler.

Mahājanapada: a larger state formed when janapadas merged, around the 8th–7th centuries BCE; the commonest list names sixteen, from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India.

Sabhā and samiti: assemblies or councils (first mentioned in the Vedas) where clan matters were discussed; a good rājā took their advice, and some texts say an incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly.

Gaṇa / sangha (early republic): mahājanapadas such as Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla where the assembly held real power, took decisions by discussion or vote and even selected the rājā — not monarchies.

Moat: a deep, wide ditch surrounding a fort or fortified city and filled with water, used for defence; gateways were kept narrow to control movement.

Iron metallurgy: the technology of extracting and shaping iron; by the late 2nd millennium BCE iron tools were widespread, aiding large-scale agriculture and making lighter, sharper weapons.

Punch-marked coins: India’s first coins, made of silver, into which symbols were ‘punched’; later coins were of copper, gold and other metals, helping growing trade.

Varṇa: a four-fold concept from Vedic texts — Brahmins (knowledge and rituals), Kshatriyas (defence and warfare), Vaishyas (trade, business, agriculture) and Shudras (artisans, craftspeople, workers).

Jāti: a group or community with a specific occupation tied to livelihood, with skills passed from one generation to the next; often subdivided into sub-jātis with their own customs.

Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha: the two great trade and pilgrimage routes — the first connecting the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India, the second running from Kauśhāmbī across the Vindhyas to the south.

“Questions and activities” — Full Solutions

All questions below are reproduced verbatim from the NCERT textbook’s end-of-chapter Questions and activities section. Answers are original, written in exam-ready style.

1. Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kauṭilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today?

ANSWER In the quotation from the Arthaśhāstra, Kauṭilya advises that a kingdom should be protected by fortifying the capital and the frontier towns; that the land should be able to feed not only its own people but also outsiders during calamities; that it should be beautiful and well-endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber and elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle; that it should not depend only on rain for water; and that it should have good roads and waterways and a productive economy with a wide variety of goods. Comparison with today: Surprisingly, the basics are not very different. A modern country still needs secure borders and defence, food security and the ability to help citizens (and even neighbours) during disasters, natural resources such as minerals, forests and water, dependable water sources beyond just rainfall (dams, canals, groundwater), good roads, railways and waterways for transport, and a strong, diverse economy. The technology and scale have changed, but the priorities a good government cares about — security, resources, infrastructure and a thriving economy — remain remarkably similar.

2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?

ANSWER The text shows that there was not one single way of choosing rulers; it depended on the type of state. In the monarchies (such as Magadha, Kosala and Avanti), the position of the rājā was hereditary — the ruler was usually the son of the previous one. However, the rājā was not expected to rule arbitrarily; he was supposed to take the advice of the assemblies (sabhā and samiti) and of his ministers, and according to some texts an incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly. In the gaṇas or sanghas (early republics such as Vajji/Vṛijji and Malla), the rājā was not hereditary at all — the assembly itself selected the ruler and took major decisions through discussion and, if necessary, through a vote. Because the members of the assembly chose the ruler, these states are often called the world’s earliest republics.

3. Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahājanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.

ANSWER As the chapter says, our knowledge of this period comes mainly from two kinds of sources, and a historian would use both, checking one against the other. 1. Archaeological sources — the remains dug up from ancient sites. Excavations of fortified cities (the ruins at Rājagṛiha/Rajgir, Kauśhāmbī and Śhiśhupalgarh) reveal the size of cities, their fortifications, moats and narrow gateways, street plans and public buildings. Iron tools and weapons show the spread of iron metallurgy, while punch-marked coins tell us about trade and which mahājanapada issued them. Such physical evidence confirms that these urban centres really existed. 2. Literary sources — the ancient texts. Late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature is full of references to these new urban centres and the names of the mahājanapadas; ancient Tamil literature mentions the Cholas, Cheras and Pānḍyas and their kings; and texts like Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra describe how a kingdom should be governed. These texts add names, events, ideas and details of governance that objects alone cannot give. How they work together: archaeology gives reliable physical evidence but cannot tell us names or beliefs; literature gives names and ideas but may exaggerate. By combining the two, a historian builds a fuller and more trustworthy picture — while remembering that the data for such remote periods is incomplete.

4. Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.

ANSWER The chapter reminds us that ‘urbanisation does not happen without technologies’, and iron metallurgy was the key technology behind the Second Urbanisation. 1. Bigger agriculture, more food: By the late 2nd millennium BCE iron tools had become widespread. Strong iron axes helped clear the thick forests of the Ganga plains, and iron ploughshares and sickles allowed farming on a much bigger scale. More food could feed larger populations, including people who did not farm — the very condition a city needs. 2. Surplus, specialisation and trade: A farming surplus freed people to become craftspeople, traders, builders, administrators and soldiers. This specialisation, together with the first coins, fuelled busy markets and trade networks that linked the janapadas — the lifeblood of towns. 3. Stronger states: Iron made better weapons than bronze — lighter and sharper swords, spears, arrows and shields. This helped rulers build armies, defend their fortified capitals and expand their territory, so larger and more powerful states (the mahājanapadas) could form and protect their cities. In short, iron raised food production, encouraged trade and strengthened states — all essential for cities to grow.

“Let’s explore” Activities

The chapter also contains in-text “Let’s explore” activities, including a comparison table. These are reproduced and answered below.

Activity: The most powerful of these new states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match with Indian cities of today?

ANSWER Reading the map of the sixteen mahājanapadas (Fig. 4.3), the capitals of these four powerful states were:
MahājanapadaCapital (ancient)Matching modern city / region
MagadhaRājagṛihaRajgir, in Bihar
KosalaŚhrāvastīShravasti area, Uttar Pradesh
VatsaKauśhāmbīKaushambi, near Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh
AvantiUjjayinīUjjain, Madhya Pradesh
All four can be matched with living Indian cities or places of today — a fine example of the chapter’s point that many of these ancient capitals are ‘modern’ cities about 2,500 years old. This answer depends on the map (Fig. 4.3); your teacher may also accept other capitals you can read from the map.

Activity: Fill up the following table with a Yes (tick) or No (cross) in each square, comparing the two phases of Indian civilisation.

ANSWER
FeatureFirst Urbanisation (Harappan)Second Urbanisation
Ganga plainsNoYes
MonasteriesNoYes
LiteratureNoYes
TradeYesYes
WarfareNoYes
Copper / bronzeYesYes
IronNoYes
Why: The Harappans were based in the Indus/Sindhu region, not the Ganga plains, had no monasteries (these came with Buddhism and Jainism), and left no readable literature; they were skilled in copper and bronze but not iron, and there is little sign of warfare. The Second Urbanisation grew in the Ganga plains, had monasteries and a rich late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature, used iron alongside copper/bronze, and saw warfare between mahājanapadas. Trade was important in both phases.

Activity: Why should a complex society divide itself into such groups? List other professions you expect in a complex society of the 1st millennium BCE.

ANSWER Why a complex society divides into groups: As society grows larger and more complex, no single person can do every task, so people specialise. Dividing work among groups concerned with governance, defence, religion, education, trade, town-planning, farming, crafts and the arts allows skills to be developed and passed on, makes work more efficient, and brings order and stability to society. Other professions of a 1st-millennium-BCE society: metalsmiths and blacksmiths, potters, weavers and dyers, carpenters and builders, stone-carvers and sculptors, jewellers, leather-workers, boatmen, merchants and money-handlers, physicians, scribes, teachers, soldiers, priests, dancers and musicians, farmers and cattle-herders.

Extra Practice Questions

Short Answer Type Questions

Q1. What is meant by the ‘Second Urbanisation of India’?

ANSWERThe Second Urbanisation is the new phase of urban life that began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and parts of the Indus basin, after about a thousand years without cities following the decline of the Harappan civilisation (the First Urbanisation). It gradually spread across the Subcontinent and has continued right up to today.

Q2. What does the word ‘janapada’ mean?

ANSWER‘Janapada’ is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)’ — that is, a territory where a clan has settled down. Each janapada was associated with a clan and led by a rājā or ruler.

Q3. How were the mahājanapadas formed, and how many are usually listed?

ANSWERAs trade networks expanded and connected the janapadas, some of these early states merged together by the 8th–7th centuries BCE to form bigger units called mahājanapadas. Although texts give different lists, the most frequent list names sixteen mahājanapadas, stretching from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India.

Q4. What is a moat, and why were city gateways kept narrow?

ANSWERA moat is a deep, wide ditch dug around a fort or fortified city and filled with water, to make attack difficult. The gateways through the rampart walls were deliberately kept narrow so that guards could control the movement of people and goods entering or leaving the city.

Q5. Name the four varṇas and the work expected of each.

ANSWERThe four varṇas were: Brahmins, who preserved and spread knowledge and performed rituals; Kshatriyas, who defended society and the land and engaged in warfare; Vaishyas, who increased wealth through trade, business and agriculture; and Shudras, who were the artisans, craftspeople, workers and servants.

Long Answer Type Questions

Q1. Describe the system of governance that the janapadas and mahājanapadas evolved.

ANSWEREach janapada had an assembly or council called sabhā or samiti, where matters concerning the clan were discussed; most members were probably elders. The rājā was not expected to rule arbitrarily but to take advice from these assemblies and from his ministers, and some texts say an incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly. When the mahājanapadas arose, they expanded these basic principles into two kinds of state. Most were monarchies (like Magadha, Kosala and Avanti), where the rājā was the ultimate authority, his position was hereditary, and he collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications and kept an army. But at least two — Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla — were gaṇas or sanghas, where the assembly held real power, took decisions by discussion or vote, and even selected the rājā. Because the members chose the ruler, scholars often call these the world’s earliest republics.

Q2. Explain the varṇa–jāti system and how it changed over time.

ANSWERAs Indian society grew complex, it organised itself in a two-fold system. A jāti was a community with a specific occupation closely tied to livelihood — skills in agriculture, metallurgy, commerce or a craft were passed from generation to generation, and a jāti could be further subdivided into sub-jātis with their own customs of marriage, ritual and food. Alongside it was the varṇa, a concept from Vedic texts with four divisions: Brahmins (knowledge and ritual), Kshatriyas (defence and warfare), Vaishyas (trade, business, agriculture) and Shudras (artisans and workers). In the early period the system was fairly flexible — there is evidence that individuals and communities changed occupations when circumstances such as drought demanded, and even Brahmins might turn to trade or military life. The system gave society structure and stability, but in time it became rigid, especially during British rule, leading to inequalities and discrimination against the lower jātis and excluded communities. (The English word ‘caste’ comes from the Portuguese casta.)

Q3. Describe the major innovations and trade routes of the age of the mahājanapadas.

ANSWERThe age of the janapadas and mahājanapadas was a time of profound change. New schools of thought — late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain — spread their teachings through travelling scholars, monks, nuns and pilgrims, and Indian art was renewed. The key technological shift was iron metallurgy: by the late 2nd millennium BCE iron tools were widespread, aiding large-scale agriculture and giving lighter, sharper weapons. Growing trade led to the first Indian coins — silver ‘punch-marked coins’ into which symbols were stamped, soon followed by copper and gold coins, usually issued by each mahājanapada but also exchanged across regions. To carry this trade, pilgrimage and military movement, great routes opened up: the Uttarapatha, linking the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India, and the Dakṣhiṇapatha, running from Kauśhāmbī across the Vindhya Range to the south, with many lateral roads reaching the eastern and western ports. By about 300–200 BCE the whole Subcontinent had become one vibrant, interconnected land, even trading with Central and Southeast Asia.

MCQs & Assertion–Reason

1. India’s ‘First Urbanisation’ is associated with which civilisation?

(a) Vedic    (b) Harappan / Sindhu–Sarasvatī    (c) Mauryan    (d) Gupta

2. The word ‘janapada’ literally means:

(a) a great king    (b) a fortified city    (c) where the people have set foot (settled)    (d) a silver coin

3. According to the more frequent list, how many mahājanapadas were there?

(a) 8    (b) 12    (c) 16    (d) 22

4. Which of these mahājanapadas was a gaṇa or sangha (early republic)?

(a) Magadha    (b) Avanti    (c) Kosala    (d) Vajji (Vṛijji)

5. The assemblies in which clan matters were discussed were called:

(a) sabhā and samiti    (b) varṇa and jāti    (c) Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha    (d) gaṇa and sangha

6. A deep, wide, water-filled ditch around a fortified city is called a:

(a) rampart    (b) moat    (c) gateway    (d) janapada

7. India’s first coins were made mainly of which metal?

(a) Gold    (b) Copper    (c) Silver    (d) Iron

8. Which technology was the major new shift of the Second Urbanisation?

(a) Bronze casting    (b) Iron metallurgy    (c) Glass-making    (d) Paper-making

9. The capital of the Magadha mahājanapada was:

(a) Ujjayinī    (b) Kauśhāmbī    (c) Rājagṛiha    (d) Śhrāvastī

10. The two great trade routes mentioned in the chapter were the:

(a) Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha    (b) sabhā and samiti    (c) varṇa and jāti    (d) Chola and Chera roads

Answer key: 1-(b), 2-(c), 3-(c), 4-(d), 5-(a), 6-(b), 7-(c), 8-(b), 9-(c), 10-(a).

For each Assertion–Reason question, choose: (A) Both true and the Reason correctly explains the Assertion; (B) Both true but the Reason is not the correct explanation; (C) Assertion true, Reason false; (D) Assertion false, Reason true.

A-R 1. Assertion: After the decline of the Harappan civilisation, urban life remained largely absent in India for about a thousand years.

Reason: All the components of the Harappan urban order, such as administration, markets and a writing system, had disappeared.

A-R 2. Assertion: Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla were monarchies ruled by a hereditary king.

Reason: In these states the assembly took major decisions by discussion or vote and even selected the rājā.

A-R 3. Assertion: The development of iron metallurgy helped urbanism grow in the 1st millennium BCE.

Reason: Iron tools made large-scale agriculture possible and gave lighter, sharper weapons.

A-R 4. Assertion: Historians rely on both archaeological and literary sources to study the mahājanapadas.

Reason: Excavations confirm ancient urban centres while late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain texts describe them.

A-R 5. Assertion: The varṇa–jāti system was completely rigid right from the start.

Reason: There is evidence that in early periods individuals and communities changed their occupations when circumstances demanded.

Answer key: 1-(A), 2-(D), 3-(A), 4-(A), 5-(D).

Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

How to score full marks in this chapter

Be ready to define First vs Second Urbanisation and to explain the difference between a janapada and a mahājanapada. Remember the number sixteen and a few names with capitals (Magadha–Rājagṛiha, Kosala–Śhrāvastī, Vatsa–Kauśhāmbī, Avanti–Ujjayinī). For governance questions, always contrast monarchies with the gaṇas/sanghas (early republics like Vajji and Malla). Link iron metallurgy to bigger agriculture, surplus, trade and stronger armies. Use the textbook’s own examples — sabhā/samiti, punch-marked coins, the moat and narrow gateways, the Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha — to show you have studied the chapter.

Common mistakes to avoid

  • Confusing the First Urbanisation (Harappan, Indus region, no iron) with the Second Urbanisation (Ganga plains, iron).
  • Saying all mahājanapadas were monarchies — some, like Vajji and Malla, were gaṇas/sanghas (republics).
  • Mixing up varṇa (the four-fold Vedic concept) with jāti (occupation-based community).
  • Forgetting that India’s first coins were silver punch-marked coins, not gold.
  • Treating the varṇa–jāti system as rigid from the beginning — it was more flexible in early periods.
  • Giving only one type of source for Q3 — always mention both archaeological and literary sources.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Chapter 4 of Class 7 Social Science Exploring Society about?

Chapter 4, New Beginnings: Cities and States, explains India’s Second Urbanisation — the rise of the janapadas and the sixteen mahājanapadas, their systems of governance (monarchies and early republics or gaṇas), the role of iron metallurgy and the first punch-marked coins, the varṇa–jāti system, and the great trade routes that connected the Subcontinent.

What is the difference between a janapada and a mahājanapada?

A janapada was a small early state — a territory where a clan had settled, led by a rājā. As trade expanded and janapadas merged by the 8th–7th centuries BCE, larger units called mahājanapadas were formed; the most frequent list names sixteen of them, with large fortified capital cities.

What is the exercise heading for Chapter 4 of Exploring Society?

The end-of-chapter exercise in Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Part 1) Chapter 4 is headed Questions and activities and contains 4 questions, all answered step by step on this page, along with the in-text “Let’s explore” activities and comparison table.

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